Environment and Coffee Forest Forum

Environment and Coffee Forest Forum

Coffee: Ethiopia’s Gift to the World The traditional production systems as living examples of crop domestication, and sustainable production and an assessment of different certification schemes

COFFEE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN ETHIOPIA

Text: Tadesse Woldemariam Gole, Environment and Coffee Forest Forum (ECFF) Layout: Environment and Coffee Forest Forum (ECFF) Photos: Environment and Coffee Forest Forum (ECFF) Addis Abeba, Ethiopia 2015

2


Table of Content 1

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 5 1.1

Background ................................................................................................................ 5

1.2

Origin, history and culture of coffee ................................................................................. 6

1.2.1

Legend of coffee discovery ....................................................................................... 6

1.2.2

Earlier and traditional modes of coffee consumption in Ethiopia.......................................... 6

1.2.3

Coffee culture in Ethiopia ......................................................................................... 7

1.3 2

Coffee diversity, conservation and sustainable use ................................................................... 10 2.1

4

5

Coffee´s? genetic biodiversity ....................................................................................... 10

2.1.1

Diversity in wild coffee .......................................................................................... 10

2.1.2

Diversity in cultivated coffee ................................................................................... 10

2.2 3

Domestication and distribution ........................................................................................ 9

Coffee forests and biodiversity ...................................................................................... 12

Coffee production systems in Ethiopia ................................................................................... 13 3.1

The forest coffee system ............................................................................................. 14

3.2

The semi-forest coffee system ....................................................................................... 16

3.3

The garden coffee ...................................................................................................... 18

3.4

Plantation coffee systems ............................................................................................ 19

3.5

Agronomic practices for coffee production ........................................................................ 20

Environmental and social aspects of traditional coffee production systems ...................................... 22 4.1

Resilience to climate change ......................................................................................... 22

4.2

Mitigation to climate change: ecosystem services of coffee production systems .......................... 23

4.3

Conservation of biodiversity .......................................................................................... 23

4.4

Provision of different products and services vital for livelihoods ............................................. 24

Coffee processing ............................................................................................................ 25 5.1

Dry processing method ................................................................................................ 25

5.2

Wet processing method ............................................................................................... 26

5.2.1 5.3

Stages in wet processing ........................................................................................ 26

Storage of dry coffee .................................................................................................. 28

6

Coffee quality ................................................................................................................ 28

7

Coffee certification ......................................................................................................... 29 7.1

Coffee certification schemes ......................................................................................... 30

7.1.1

Fairtrade ........................................................................................................... 31 3


7.1.2

Organic certification ............................................................................................. 31

7.1.3

Rainforest Alliance ............................................................................................... 33

7.1.4

Bird Friendly ....................................................................................................... 33

7.1.5

UTZ Certified ...................................................................................................... 34

7.2

7.2.1

Seed, seedling and nursery ..................................................................................... 35

7.2.2

Management on farm ............................................................................................. 35

7.2.3

Soil management ................................................................................................. 35

7.2.4

Shade trees ........................................................................................................ 35

7.2.5

Biodiversity ........................................................................................................ 35

7.2.6

Buffer zone ........................................................................................................ 36

7.3

8

9

Farm management within certified farms ......................................................................... 34

Postharvest handling and processing within certified projects ................................................ 36

7.3.1

Wet processing .................................................................................................... 36

7.3.2

Dry processing ..................................................................................................... 36

7.3.3

Cleaning measures ................................................................................................ 37

7.3.4

Cleaning and packing ............................................................................................ 37

7.3.5

Labeling ............................................................................................................ 37

7.3.6

Documenting organic records Why only org here? ......................................................... 37

7.3.7

Export system ..................................................................................................... 37

Uniqueness of Ethiopian coffee production systems .................................................................. 38 8.1

Diversity of genetic resources and production system .......................................................... 38

8.2

Source of unique coffee types ....................................................................................... 39

8.3

Prospects of sustainable coffee production in Ethiopia ......................................................... 39

References .................................................................................................................... 40

Annexes ............................................................................................................................. 44

4


1 Introduction 1.1 Background Coffee is the most popular soft drink in the world. Over 2.25 billion cups are consumed every day (Ponte 2002). Its popularity and volume of consumption are growing every year, and coffee shops are the fastest growing part of the restaurant business. Today, coffee is both a part of our social experiences as well as an accepted norm for doing business. Many business managers, scientists, politicians, and people of all walks of life relax having a cup of coffee during breaks in between meetings, busy research works and routine daily activities. Economically, coffee is the second most exported commodity after oil, and employs over 100 million people worldwide (Petit 2007; Pedegrast 2010; Gray et al. 2013). According FAO statistics (www.faostat3.fao.org), global coffee production area covered around 10,142,285 ha in 2013. There are over 120 species of coffee (genus Coffea). However, the only two species of economic importance: Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) and Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora). Ethiopia is the center of origin and diversity of Arabica coffee. Arabica coffee is the most widely consumed, dominating over 70% in volume of production and over 90% of traded value globally. More than 80 developing countries mainly earn their foreign currency from coffee. For Ethiopia, coffee is the most important export commodity, with a share of 20-25% of the total foreign exchange earnings. At least 15 million people also directly or indirectly rely on coffee for their livelihood (Ministry of Trade 2012, Gray et al. 2013). As the county of origin for crop, Ethiopia produces premium quality coffee. It is the leading producer in Africa, and the 5th in the world, following Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia and Indonesia. If we consider Arabica alone, Ethiopia is the 3rd largest producer after Brazil and Colombia (ICO 2015). Ethiopia also has the largest highland area suitable for Arabica production and, hence has the potential to be a leading producer in both quality and quantity. Nearly all coffees produced in Ethiopia are shade grown, with 40-60% canopy cover, except few home garden systems in Eastern Ethiopia. The coffee plants are also mainly either local varieties/ land races or of wild origin. The chemical inputs for production are very low, and even nonexistence in most cases, while processing involves both the wet and dry methods. The dominant method, however is the dry (natural) method, with low environmental impact. Ethiopian coffees are traded as conventional or specialty products. Specialty coffee are those certified, using the standards of Organic (EU), Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade or combinations of these. The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC) has commissioned this study as part of their work with the Global Green Action Week in collaboration with partner organizations around the globe. The aim is to educate consumers about coffee origin, production system and its social and environmental sustainability. The study emphasis on coffee origin, diversity, description of production systems, different certification standards, environmental and social benefits of traditional coffee production systems, and certification standards. The report intend to help coffee consumers and reader to better understand the production of conventional and certified coffee in Ethiopia, and how the production processes are planned and organized.

"This report is funded by Sida, the Swedish International Development Cooperation, through the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation. The Swedish Society for Nature Conservation does not necessarily share the opinions expressed herein. Responsibility for the content are exclusively the author's. "

5


1.2 Origin, history and culture of coffee 1.2.1 Legend of coffee discovery Given coffee’s captivating cultural influence, there are several stories and legends about its discovery. A very common legend about its discovery is that of Kaldi and his dancing goats. The story tells that a young Ethiopian goat herder named Kaldi, who lived around the year AD850 noticed to his amazement, that after chewing the bright red berries from a certain tree, his goats pranced around in an unusually exuberant manner. Out of curiosity, he tried a handful of the berries that were growing on the bushes nearby. Feeling a novel sense of elation, Kaldi realized that there was something exceptional about this fruit and, filling his pockets, rushed back to his wife to share his discovery. ‘They are heaven sent!’ she declared, ‘you must take them to the monastery.’ Kaldi presented the cherries to the chief monk, telling the miraculous effect they had on him, and his goats. On hearing the story and the cherries’ extraordinary properties, the monk threw them onto the fire denouncing them to be the work of the devil. Within minutes, the monastery began to fill up with the heavenly smell of roasting beans and the other monks gathered to investigate. Raking the spitting and popping beans from the ashes, they were placed in a pot and covered with hot water to preserve their freshness. That night, the monks sat up drinking the rich and fragrant brew and vowed that they should drink it daily to help with their nightly prayers. Words of the magical properties of coffee cherries spread far and wide. The habit of drinking coffee spread all over Arabia, the Mediterranean, and gradually Europe and the rest of the world. Although the legend of Kaldi, his goats and the monks says that coffee was discovered as a stimulant and as a beverage on the same day, it is far more likely that coffee beans were chewed as a stimulant for centuries before they were made into a beverage. The Oromos in Ethiopia were consuming coffee centuries before the Kaldi legend, and have their own legend of its discovery. Once upon a time, Waqa, the supreme sky God, punished one of his loyal men with death. The next morning, Waqa visited the burial place, and tears dropped of his eyes. A plant emerged from the soil watered by Waqa’s tears, and that was coffee. It is believed that all other plants are watered by rain, but coffee is with tears of God. Coffee is always green. In Oromo tradition green symbolizes fertility through which a supreme God, Waqa manifests himself to the people. Hence, coffee has special value in Oromo culture (Gole et al. 2013).

1.2.2 Earlier and traditional modes of coffee consumption in Ethiopia The earlier use of coffee was as food, rather than as beverage. For instance, there are evidences which show that Oromos started using coffee as energy food long before its current popular use a beverage. There are also other traditional beverages consumed locally, than the popular mode of consumption known worldwide. The traditional foods from coffee include coffee ball, buna qalaa and qori, while traditional drinks are quti, hojja and chamo (Gole et al. 2013). Coffee ball: Ripe coffee berries collected from wild coffee trees were ground with stone mortars, mixed with butter and formed into small balls the size of a billiard ball. Coffee ball is rich in caffeine, sugar, fat and protein and one can provide energy for one person for a day. Warriors, farmers and merchants engaged in hard work or long journeys used to eat the coffee balls to overcome the problems of hunger and exhaustion. Some historians believe that Sudanese slaves in route to Arabia picked up this custom of chewing coffee/ coffee balls, and the coffee plant from the Oromo tribe southwestern of Ethiopia and introduced it to Harar and Yemen. In his book, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, James Bruce has noted that the Oromo warriors’ used coffee during their 16th century expansion.

6


Buna qalaa and Qori: The common coffee meals that have continued to the present time are buna qalaa and Qori. Buna qala is prepared from green beans. The green beans are roasted in a pot on fire, and mixed with butter while still on fire. The roasted coffee enriched with butter is served as food. Currently, Buna qalaa is served on special occasions like birth of a child, wedding, thanks giving and other events of high cultural significance. Qori is prepared from roasted coffee beans and barley, mixed with spiced butter. Qori is served as snack, especially during coffee ceremony.

Figure 1. Buna qalaa

Traditional beverages: Oromos and many ethnic groups in the areas of coffee origin prepare different beverages from coffee leaves, like Quti, Hoja and Chamo. Quti is tea from coffee leaf, without any additives, while Hojja is mixed with milk. Chamo is prepared from fresh coffee buds/ young leaves. The leaves are boiled with ginger, cardamom and chili pepper to produce a hot beverage that is consumed in the mornings in southern Ethiopia. Chamo is believed to prevent malaria. It is highly possible that these traditional uses of coffee, if modernize, can lead to inventions of new uses of coffee as diet, energy or health food in the future. 1.2.3 Coffee culture in Ethiopia Today, the culture of drinking brewed coffee is deep-rooted and widespread, known almost among all ethnic groups in Ethiopia. It is a social drink, and is normally shared with neighbors. Every time coffee is made, it is freshly roasted. The coffee ceremony involves sorting, washing and roasting the beans, and preparing boiled coffee in a clay pot known as ‘Jabana’. It is often served by a younger woman in the household, in a ceremony that takes an hour or two, and up to three times a day (in the morning, at noon and in the evening). Coffee ceremony can also be organized at any time of the day if a guest comes, on mourning, conflict mediation or other social events. The coffee ceremony is considered to be the most important social occasion in many villages and it is a sign of respect and friendship to be invited to a coffee ceremony. Guests at a ceremony may discuss topics such as politics, community and gossip. There are also blessings for ceremony’s performer and praise for the brews she produces. The lengthy Ethiopian coffee ceremony involves processing the raw, unwashed coffee beans into finished cups of coffee. It begins with the preparation of the room for the ritual. First, the woman who is performing the ceremony spreads fresh, aromatic grasses and/or flowers across the floor. She begins burning incense to ward off evil spirits, and continues to burn incense throughout the ceremony. She fills the Jabana with water and places it over hot charcoal or fire. The green coffee beans are carefully cleaned, roasted on a pan using traditional charcoals or wood fire stove. During the roasting, the roast is kept as even as possible by stirring the beans constantly

7


or shaking them. The aroma of the roasted coffee is powerful and is considered to be an important aspect of the ceremony. Hence, the hostess often goes around letting the guest smell the smoke from the roasted coffee. The roasted beans are grinded using a small mortar and pestle, into a coarse ground. Then, the ground coffee is added to hot water in the Jabana set on stove, and then mixed by shaking. The mixture is boiled and removed from heat. Waiting for few minutes till the dregs settles down to the bottom of the Jabana, the coffee is served, by pouring the brew into ceramic or glass cups that are arranged on a coffee table or Rakabot. The dregs of the coffee remain in the pot. Today, the Ethiopian coffee ceremony has become one of the tourist attractions and being served in most tourist destination hotels and restaurants.

Figure 2. Traditional coffee ceremony outdoors

In some areas, the deep-rooted coffee culture is manifested even in architecture. Symbolic Jabana is used to decorate squares in city centers, like in Jimma city of Oromia, or roof tops in Bonga/Kafa and many other places in the main coffee growing areas of the country.

8


Figure 3. Jabana decorating streets and building

1.3 Domestication and distribution According to Luxner (2001) the domestication and use of coffee in Ethiopia dates back some 2000 years ago. Some legends of its early consumptions even date it back, around 1000 BC (Illy and Illy 2015). During the early period of domestication, coffee was only used as food by the native Oromo people. Coffee become known to the rest of the world only during the beginning of the last millennium. It was first brought by traders to Yemen around year 600 (Illy and Illy 2015). The Arabs developed its present use as liquor, and the culture of drinking coffee reached Turkey and Syria during the late 1400s and early 1500s. This habit of drinking coffee gradually spread to the rest of the world, leading to an increased interest in producing it as a commodity on a large scale. The Dutch first introduced coffee plantations to Java in 1690 (Figure 4.), and it gradually spread to other parts of the word, especially Latin America (Haarer 1962; Ferwerda 1976). Today, Latin American countries are the major producers of Arabica coffee.

Figure 4. Distribution routes for the cultivated coffee crop in the tropics: the continuous line shows

the routes of C. arabica. The numbers are approximate years of introduction (Ferwerda 1976).

9


2 Coffee diversity, conservation and sustainable use 2.1 Coffee genetic biodiversity The spread of coffee all over the world was based on seeds from a single tree or a few trees introduced to Yemen, thus, cultivated coffee varieties have a very narrow genetic base. The best hope for crop improvement lies in the progenitors or wild relatives of the cultivated plants that harbor rich genetic resources for tolerance against abiotic (drought, cold, heat, salt, solar radiation), and biotic (pathogens, parasites, competitors) stresses (Nevo 1998; Schoen and Brown 1993). In this regard, the Ethiopian Arabica coffee genepool represents the most important and diversified genepool of this species. The natural genetic diversity or genepool of economic plants has three distinct categories, namely: a) the primitive cultivars or landraces of traditional agriculture, b) the advanced cultivars produced by plant breeders in the last 100 years, and c) the wild or weedy species related to domesticated cultivars (Teketay and Tigneh 1994). Ethiopia is well noted as centre of origin and diversity of many domesticated crops including Arabica coffee. It possesses all three categories of the genepool for C. arabica (Tewolde 1990). Sylvian (1958) witnessed the existence of a great variation among the wild coffee plants in Ethiopia. In efforts to collect and document the use of coffee genes in breeding programs, researchers have collected a total of around 11,691 Arabica coffee germplasm accessions from different coffee growing areas throughout Ethiopia. The collections are conserved ex situ in field gene banks at Jimma Agricultural Research Center and its sub-centers (5,960 accessions) and in Choche (5,731 accessions), in Jimma zone of Oromia state, Ethiopia (Gole et al. 2002). The collection at Choche is mainly for conservation and managed by the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute. 2.1.1 Diversity in wild coffee The wild populations of C. arabica in the montane rainforests are the most important genetic pool of the crop. Tesfaye (2006) reported high genetic variability within and between different wild populations in Ethiopia. He further noted that wild coffee plants are genetically distinct and more diverse when compared to the cultivated varieties grown in Ethiopia and around the world. The presence of high genetic variation in natural coffee populations in the forest and semi-forest systems can partly be attribute to the presence of wide ecological variation, ranging from 1000 m to 1800 m or even up to 2000 m in altitude, with highly dissected and rolling topography. The average temperature and rainfall also varies with a similar magnitude. The availability of high genetic diversity is fundamental for any crop improvement program for use by the plant breeders. In the absence of genetic diversity, any improvement endeavor is time consuming, expensive and with little success. Alike other crop species, the conservation of coffee genetic resources plays significant role as an economic potential, ecosystem conservation and survival capacity of the species. Because of this high genetic diversity, coffee breeding programs have been striving to identify disease tolerance, drought resistance, and low caffeine varieties. Therefore, a diverse coffee gene pool is of paramount importance for breeding. Particularly, cross breeding of cultivars and wild genetic material leads to results above average due to heterosis effects. In this regard, the Ethiopian wild coffee populations provide highly diverse genetic material for future coffee breeding and selection. 2.1.2 Diversity in cultivated coffee Surveys in main coffee growing regions of the country showed that there is a high diversity of coffee landraces. In garden coffee systems and other cultivated coffee production systems, farmers choose

10


the coffee types of their preferences and often mix more than one landrace. Some farmers plant up to five landraces in their garden. Each has its own advantages. Some are high yielding, some have good aroma and flavor and some are resistant to diseases. A total of 130 landraces known by local names in different localities were recorded in the areas covered by the surveys (see Box 1). Twentytwo were recorded in the Hararghe region in the east (Teketay and Tigneh 1994; Gole et al. 2001), 33 in Borana and Sidama in the southern part, and 75 in Assosa, Gambella, Illubabor, Jimma and Wollega coffee growing regions in western and southwestern parts of the country (Admasu et al. 1989). The list is not complete since many coffee growing areas were not surveyed. For instance, the major coffee areas such as Kaffa, Maji, Mizan –Aman and Tepi in the southwest, and the minor coffee areas such as Arsi, Bale, Gojjam, Omo, Shoaand Wollo were not covered. Box 1. Traditional landraces in different coffee growing regions Italic? See other box Hararghe

Borana and Sidama

Jimma, Illubabor, Wollega, Gambella and Asossa

Abadiro, Bale Walancho,Kolisho, Mello,Chercherei, Chochie, Mito, Alga, Tino, Bukuri Buna Buncha, Orommie, Fesfus, Dalecha, Selalei 1, Selalei 2, (Enkure), Buna Legumami, Shayta, Setea, Wendie, Gota, Kereso, Adi, Buna Kurumei, Dega, Dirbu, Gedjo, Oshiro (Oromie), Miro, Guracha A, Setamo, Tils, Chakayie, Kabiso, Inaria, Buna guracha, Buna Guracha Gidicho, Dumancho, Guna gura, Buna albu, Kubri, Nole Buna, B, Buna Jima, Terako, Sewa, Bokoji, Buna Liketi, Buna Babu, Darimu Buna Kella, Wecincho, Buna, Tikur Buna, Yabeshe Buna, Buna adi, Cherchero, Gugudamei, Hiromie, Kubri Deme, Buna Bilo, Ale Buna, Denga, Kudume, Galo, Chora Buna, Buna Goromiti, Araba, Yeleku Buna, Fendisha, Wolisho, Bedesa, Bisle Buba, Dureni Buna, Kombu, Gamu, Ittu, Guto, Meke, Awer, Buna Saki, Yegeba Buna, Cholu Buna Kabnya, Welencho, Kolinsho, Buna Birbirso, Goma Buna , Bedesa, Chobo Buna, Muyra, Olaha, Deracicho, Ado, Geleb Buna, Sardo Buna, Urgoftu, Sor Buna, Shekhussieno, Awicho, Shamilei, Yeboto Buna, Yembo, Darma Buna, Shenkuyi, Bula Bunchu, Wojo, Geri Buna, Yembo Buna, Yekurundusie Buna, Shimbure, Danchei, Damu, Haya Buna, Toluma, Buna, Senbo Buna, Torbi, Tujar, Kunkuwranachei, Kubur, Syndi, Harar, Buna, Bedesa, Yawane, Wogere Amoler, Ganticho Aba Bapasa, Gufaro, Mito, Keda Buna, Gadafa Note: The headers in bold are names of the coffee growing regions and the list below each column are the local names of the traditional landraces, separated from each other by commas, as recorded in respective regions. Hararghe, Borana and Sidama are found east of the GRV those in the 3rd column are in the western part

Farmers identify their traditional coffee landraces by color of leaves, gross morphology of trees, weight and shape of fruits and beans, presence or absence of aroma during roasting of beans, etc. They give names to the landraces based on the different attributes of the landrace (Teketay and Tigneh 1994; Gole et al. 2001). In Ethiopia, there are different coffee types recognized by their origin and quality, and used as trade names. These include Bebeka, Harar, Jimma, Kaffa, Lekempti/Wellega, Limmu, Sidama, Teppi and Yirgacheffe. Under each coffee type, 2-5 different local types are recognized. Such high level of diversity is partly attributed to the presence of indigenous traditional production systems of coffee in the country. There are four major categories of production systems namely: forest, semiforest, garden and plantation coffee production systems. The first three are traditional systems by small scale subsistent farmers, and account for over 95% of the coffee produced in Ethiopia. The

11


different production systems are discussed in detail in the next section, under coffee production systems. Box 2. Main coffee type by quality and place of origin (Boot 2011; Ministry of Trade 2012) Coffee Type

Characteristics

Yirgacheffe

Internationally known and recognized as Yirgachaffe Brand Name. It is highland grown coffee and has intense flavor known as flora. Top grade Yirgacheffe coffees share many characteristics with the best Sidama coffees. Fruit flavors, a bright acidity, and a silky mouthfeel are some of its hallmarks. It has fine acidity and rich body. Many roasters are attracted to its fine and fruit flavor and are willing to pay a premium price for it.

Harar

Quality Harrar coffees are notable for a fruity characteristic and a creamy body. The finest Harrar coffees have a distinct note of blueberry, though many other fruity and fruit-like aromatic flavors can occur. It has medium sized beans with greenish-yellow color, medium acidity and full body, and a distinctive mocha flavor. Internationally known and recognized as Harar Trade Brand Name and highest premium coffee in the world.

Sidama

Medium-sized bean, greenish-greyish in color. Due to balanced tests and good flavor called sweet coffee, has fine acidity and good body. High grade unwashed Sidama coffees are known for their intense fruity characteristics, while being of somewhat lighter body than unwashed Harrar coffees, for example. It is always blended for gourmet or specialty coffee.

Limmu

Limu coffee (all washed) generally has a milder acidity than Sidama and Yirgacheffe; the flavor is generally characterized by a balanced and clean cupspicy and winy flavor. Washed Limmu is one of premium coffee, medium sized bean and greenish bluish in color mostly round in shape.

Jimma

Jimma coffee encompasses Ethiopia’s largest basket of unwashed coffees which included all unwashed coffee produced in the southwestern region of Ethiopia. The area has a multitude of different indigenous varieties that can be quite diverse in quality. It is heavy bodied cup with winy after taste, and can be prepared as washed sun-dried.

Tepi

Low acidity but better body than Bebeka, commercially important and used for special blend.

Bebeka

Medium-to-bold bean and known for its fruity taste, has greenish- brownish in color with good acidity and body. There are many roasters who put his flavor in their blends, but it can also be sold as an original gourmet or special origin flavor.

Lekempti

Highland grown, known for its large bean size, and the flavor can have a pronounced perfume-like aftertaste. Nekempti coffee export designations include: Kelem Wollega, East Wollega and Gimbi coffees are coffee mostly sun-dried.

2.2 Coffee forests and biodiversity Arabica coffee naturally grows as an understory shrub in the Afromontane rainforests of Ethiopia. Parts of Afromontane forest where wild Arabica coffee populations naturally occur are usually named “Coffee Forests.” From biodiversity point of view, the Afromontane forests of Ethiopia including coffee forests have already been globally recognized as hotspot areas for biodiversity

12


conservation, as the Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot (Mittermeier et al. 2005) due to their exceptionally high level of diversity and regional endemism, and high level of threat. For instance, studies on some five remnant fragments of coffee forests (e.g. Gole 2003; Schmitt 2006; Senbeta 2006) have recorded over 700 species of plants, which represents about 12% of the country’s flora. The remnant forests also differ from each other in terms of species composition, since coffee forest occur over wider geographical regions along topographic and climatic gradients (Senbeta 2006). Coffee forests are also rich in diversity of birds, mammals and other groups of mammals. For instance, Gole et al (2009) reported 200 bird, 50 mammal, and 20 amphibian species in the Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve. Engelen (2012) recorded over 107 bird species from garden coffee, semi-managed coffee, forest coffee and farmland in Gera area of Jimma. Although complete inventory is lacking some of the common mammal species in the coffee production systems include Bush Pig, Giant Forest Hog, Warthog, Colobus Monkey, Olive Baboon, Grey Duiker, lion, bushbuck and others.

3 Coffee production systems in Ethiopia Arabica coffee grows over a wide range of agro-ecological zones and geographical regions in Ethiopia (Senbeta 2006). Across these coffee growing regions, it is common to observe different coffee production systems. On the basis of management level, vegetation, structural complexity, and agronomic practices, coffee production systems in Ethiopia can be categorized into four; namely: forest coffee (FC), semi-managed forest coffee (SFC), garden coffee (GC) and plantation (Gole et al.; 2002; Gole 2003; Senbeta and Denich 2006). The first three production systems have been practiced for centuries by smallholder farmers, and therefore, are considered as ‘traditional’ coffee production systems (Gole et al. 2001). Commercial plantation coffee production system was only introduced around 100 years ago in eastern part of the country, Gololcha district of Arsi zone. The traditional production systems account for 90-95% of the production, while plantation may range 5-10%. Recent survey data is not available for accurate figure. Generally, the areas of plantations and home-gardens are increasing. Areas covered by coffee production are estimated to be about 800,000 ha with a production of about 400,000 tons of green coffee. For instance, in 2014/15 production year, Ethiopia produced 397,500 tons of green coffee green coffee. The coffee production systems are mostly forest-based; and the differences between the systems are manifested by the level of forest management intensities. Accordingly, the level of forest management ranges from little or none in the forest coffee to intensive management in the homegarden and plantation systems. Plantations also differ from others in the planting stocks and agronomic practices. Most plantations use improved coffee varieties, are planted in row, with some chemical applications for fertilizer and disease control. A detailed description of each system is given below. Font for Box 3? Do you have a photo here? Box 3: What is good for the environment is good for business - Coffee farmers and scientists witnessed A recent scientific research finding confirmed that shade coffee plantations in Ethiopia hold more forest bird species than any other coffee farms in the world (Buechley et al. 2015; Howard 2015). Accordingly, the traditional cultivation practices in Ethiopia support local forest bird biodiversity better than any other coffee farms in the world. In Ethiopia, coffee is traditionally grown under shades of native trees. Surprisingly, the researchers recorded more than 2.5 times as many bird species as in the shaded coffee plantation, as compared to the adjacent mountain forest. . All

13


understory forest birds were recorded in the plantation. Besides, birds with preference for more open areas find shaded plantations more suitable. Other studies have shown that shade coffee farms provide better bird habitat than full-sun plantations, but the effect may be more prominent in Ethiopia because farmers here tend to use native trees instead of the exotic species popular elsewhere. Berhanu Beyene is a 45-year old coffee grower in Werka, Yirgacheffe. He says that what is good for the environment is also good for business. He considers the indigenous coffee shade trees as the guardians of his family's livelihood. Ethiopia's finest coffee is grown in the shade of native trees, which allows the coffee cherries to retain their moisture until they are ready to be picked. Without the shade of these generations-old trees, the coffee bushes would produce bitter tasting, inferior quality beans. Berhanu is aware that protecting the environment pays dividends. "One of our family plots had its natural shade deforested and so the coffee beans of that particular plot yields are not of the expected high quality," says Berhanu. "Our cooperative union will not accept lower-grade coffee to be sold in the international specialty market, so we sell it for local consumption and make less money from it." The shade trees also provide shade and serve as habitat for birds and other wild animals.

3.1 The forest coffee system In this system, coffee is harvested directly from spontaneously regenerating natural population of the coffee trees in the mountain rainforests of Ethiopia. This system is found in southeastern and southwestern parts of the country (mainly in areas like Bale, Bench-Maji, Illubabor, Kafa, Jimma, Shaka, and West Wollega). The local communities living in and around the forest simply pick the wild coffee berries from naturally growing coffee plants and there is no management to improve coffee productivity. The floristic composition, diversity and structure is close to the natural situation, with little human intervention. The only management practice in the forest system is access clearing to allow movement in the forest during harvesting time (Gole et al. 2001). There is a high density of trees (Table 1), small trees, and shrubs in this system (Figure 6). The average number of canopy trees with dbh1 > 10 cm is about 460 stems/ha. Table 1. Some vegetation characteristics of forest and semi-forest coffee systems of Yayu area (only trees with dbh>10 cm and matured coffee trees are considered).

System

Canopy cover (%)

Trees per ha

Number of canopy Coffee plants per ha tree species

Forest

84

460

32

3600

Semi-forest

40-60

155

19

5800

Garden

30-40

75

5-10

1000-3500

Plantation

30-40

75

5-10

3,300

Forest strata are characteristically made up of different tree species, and coffee is one of the understory plants. Depending on the prevailing ecology, the forest may possess 3-4 strata: emergent/upper stratum (> 30 m tall), middle tree stratum (15-30 m tall) and small trees and shrubs layer (2-15 m tall) and forest floor (Senbeta 2006). For example, assessment of a forest around Bonga in Kafa showed that the upper canopy are characterized mostly by Olea welwitschii, sometimes Pouteria adolfi-feridericii species; and the most characteristic species of the middle 1

dbh- stands for diameter at breast height, which is a standard way of measuring tree size at 1.3 m above ground. 14


stratum include Elaeodendron buchananii, Polyscias fulva, Millettia ferruginea, and Syzygium guineense. The understory layer consists of small trees and shrubs with dense crowns between 2 and 15 m, with mainly Coffea arabica, Dracaena afromontana, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Psychotria orophila and Galineria saxifraga. The herb layer is patchy and the patches are variable in size and density depending on the site condition. Similarly, forest spot assessment from Harenna forest (southeastern) showed that Podocarpus falcatus is the upper canopy species. The middle stratum of this forest is mainly dominated by Ehretia cymosa, Diospyros abyssinica, Cassipourea malosana, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Alangium chinense, Strychnos mitis, Celtis africana and Ocotea kenyensis. The shrub and small tree layer is sparse and composed of Coffea arabica, Acanthus eminens, Suregada procera, Lepidotrichilia volkensii and Phyllanthus sepialis. Many grass and herbs cover the forest floor. In terms of plant diversity, various studies (Gole, 2003; Senbeta 2006; Schimtt 2006) have indicated the presence of diverse plant and animal species. For example, a study by Senbeta (2006) showed an average number of 49 plant species per 400 m2 sample plots2.

Figure 5. Over view of the Yayu coffee forest.

Gole et al. (2001) reported high density of mature trees and seedlings of coffee in such system at Yayu forest. The average density of coffee trees is about 3,600 stems/ha. Since coffee grows spontaneously like another plant community, seedlings density can even be much higher, ranging from 10,000 to over 30,000 per hectare. The wild coffee trees tends to be taller with few side branches, growing up to 12 m. This system is the lowest in coffee yield, with an average of around 200-250 kg/ha of green beans with some management practices. It only accounts for a small proportion (less than 5%) of the total production.

2

In forest vegetation studies, sample plots of 400 m 2 or 20 m x 20 m are commonly used for ease of measurement. 15


Figure 6. Distribution of plants (excluding coffee and seedlings) in different height classes by

different vegetation categories (forest type 1 is the ‘forest system’ while type 2 is the ‘semi-forest system’).

3.2 The semi-forest coffee system Semi-forest coffee represents a system in which the forest is managed or manipulated mainly for coffee production. It is a type of coffee production system where instantly the forest coffee system is converted to semi-managed forest coffee system through reduction of plant composition, diversity and density. The structure of the forest is also modified while converting from forest coffee to semi-managed forest coffee. The structural modification of the forest leads to the formation of a tall tree canopy or few shade trees and coffee layer with limited number of intermediate canopy layers. This is the dominant production system in southwester Ethiopia (mainly Bench-Maji, Illubabor, Jimma, Kafa, Shaka, and Wollega) and in the Bale Mountains of southeastern Ethiopia. In this system, small trees and shrubs competing with coffee are cleared. Clearing is twice a year, one before harvesting season and another after harvesting, before the main rainy season starts. The number of large canopy trees is highly reduced in order to open up the canopy to enhance the potential of coffee trees to bear more berries. Coffee yield is directly proportional to current growth of primary and secondary branches (Tewolde 1978), among other yield parameters like shade level and agronomic management practices. Opening up canopy and clearing of competing lower strata vegetation enhance the vegetative growth in side branching, and hence increase yield. Preference as shade trees is mainly given to legumes, since they fix nitrogen and contribute to improvement of soil fertility. Broad-leaved and deciduous trees are considered as “undesirable” for use as coffee shade unless there are no legumes or other ‘desirable’ tree species in a plot. There is a considerable change in vegetation structure and species composition when the

16


forest system is a converted to semi-forest system (Table 1, Figure 7). This change in forest structure is highly significant in the lower height classes representing shrubs, and small trees.

Figure 7. Semi-forest production system at Sheko, southwest Ethiopia.

this coffee production system suppresses tree regeneration, reduces tree density and some forest species due to repeated removal of non-coffee plants; and subsequently leads to the dominance of coffee plants in the semi-managed forest coffee system, both in the vertical and horizontal structures (Gole et al. 2001; Gole 2003; Senbeta and Denich 2006). A study by Senbeta and Denich (2006) recorded 17 plant species in a 400 m2 plot of semi-managed coffee system as compared 49 plant species in forest coffee system. This system usually differs from place to place due to difference in management intensity. Apparently, depending on the agro-ecology and intensity of management, the shade trees in the semi-managed coffee system may contain a mix of the following tree species: Albizia gummifera, Albizia grandibracteata, Albizia schimperiana, Blighia unijugata, Celtis africana, Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus, Fagaropsis angolensis, Macaranga capensis, Millettia ferruginea, Olea welwitschii, Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Sapium ellipticum, Trichilia dregeana, Trilepisium madagascariense and others. In this system too, coffee population is mainly from the spontaneously growing wild population. Farmers simple avoid competition from other plants by clearing. To make the distribution of coffee even, farmers collect wild seedlings from densely populated areas and plant in sparsely populated areas. This is almost natural condition except that competition with other species is minimized, but completion among coffee plants increase due to increase in coffee population. The average yield of the semi-forest coffee is estimated to be around 300-400 kg/ha. This system accounts for about 5055% of the total production.

17


3.3 The garden coffee The garden coffee production system is another major production system in the country, accounting for almost half of the coffee production in the country. The size of a garden coffee farm and management varies from region to region and from one farmer to another. It can be as small as very few trees around a homestead up to about 3 ha. The average size is 0.35 in Hararghe, 0.4 in southern parts east of the Great Rift Valley (GRV) and 0.6 ha per household in the southwestern coffee growing region. Management is intensive in traditional garden coffee farms. Weeding 2-3 times per year, fertilizing with farmyard manure and crop residue and hoeing are commonly practiced. Application of chemical fertilizer is generally very low. A recent survey reported that only 1-2% by small holder farmers apply chemical fertilizers (Minten et al. 2015). Geographically, this coffee production system is mainly found in the southern and eastern and some in southwestern parts of the country; and specifically in Gedeo, Guji, Hararghe, Jimma, Sidama, Wollega and some other places. In areas where coffee farmers live in close proximity to either forest coffee or semi-forest systems, the coffee plants could be old stands of natural coffee liberated from forest coffee or semi-forest coffee through intensify management. This system is well managed and hence the diversity and density of non-coffee plant species is significantly reduced. In most cases, planted trees serve as shade trees. The density of shade trees is usually low, varying 30-60 trees per ha. Depending on the ecology of the area, the shade trees may include fruit trees (mango, avocado), Ensete ventricosum, and some tree species like Acacia abyssinica, A. sieberiana, Albizia gummifera, Bersama abyssinica, Celtis africana, Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus, Ekebergia capensis, Entada abyssinica, Erythrina abyssinica, E. burana, Faidherbia albida, Ficus sur, F. sycomorus, F. vasta, Milletia ferruginea, Pygeum africanum, Olea capensis subsp. welwitschii, Syzygium guineense and others.

Figure 8. An example of garden coffee system in south-eastern Ethiopia.

18


Shade trees densities are lower, about 60 trees/ha. The major trees commonly used as shade trees in garden coffee include Acacia abyssinica, A. sieberiana, Albizia gummifera, Bersama abyssinica, Celtis africana, Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus, Ekebergia capensis, Entada abyssinica, Erythrina abyssinica, E. burana, Faidherbia albida, Ficus sur, F. sycomorus, F. vasta, Milletia ferruginea, Pygeum africanum, Olea capensis subsp. welwitschii, and Syzygium guineense. The density of coffee trees varies from one coffee growing region to another, ranging from 1000 to 3500 trees/ha. Lower density is found in Hararghe where coffee is intercropped with several other crops such as sorghum, beans, sweet potato and chat (Catha edulis). In south and southwestern parts of the country higher density is used since there is low intensity of intercropping. In these regions, when intercropped, the major mix is ensete (Ensete ventricosum), which is an important staple food. Coffee population is of traditional cultivated landraces, mostly a mixture of different types. The average yield of the garden coffee system is between 400-500 kg of green coffee per ha, but can be as high as 750 kg/ha under intensive management (Teketay and Asseffa 1994; Workafes and Kassu 2000). Box 4: Garden coffee: diversification minimized the risk of crop and market failure for coffee farmers Mr. Melaku Yoseph is a young farmer. He lives in Gerika village of Bench-Maji zone in southwestern Ethiopia, at about 550 km from Addis Ababa. He produces coffee and different horticultural crops on a 3 ha plot he got from his parents, around his home. On his plot, the main crop is coffee. The main horticultural crops that are intercropped include banana, pineapple, avocado, mango, ensete, taro and chili pepper. The main cash crops are banana, coffee, mango and pineapple. Other crops are mainly for own food consumption and local market. Melaku and other farmers in the area have established a good market linkage with fruits whole sellers in Addis Ababa and other major towns. The whole sellers buy fruits at farm gate. Melaku, however does relay on agriculture only. He invests the money from coffee and fruits sells on small business in the village. He already runs a barber shop and a cafe. Learning from his parents challenges with dependency on coffee, he tries all his best to diversify his sources of income. His next target is to start business in Mizan-Aman town, the nearest major administrative and university town in the area.

3.4 Plantation coffee systems This coffee production system is grown by the State Enterprise (Coffee Plantation Enterprise), private companies and some well managed smallholders coffee farms. In this production system, coffee plants are well managed and the recommended agronomic practices like improved seedlings, spacing, proper mulching, weeding, shade regulation and pruning are practiced. The majority of these plantations are found in Arsi, Bench-Maji, Gambella, Jimma, and Sheka. In bigger plantations,

19


shade trees are mainly from old forest stands like at Bebeka, and Teppi coffee plantations. In small plantations, shade trees are planted. Plantation coffee production system accounts for about 5% of the total coffee production in the country.

Figure 9. Coffee plantation at Teppi, southwest Ethiopia

3.5 Agronomic practices for coffee production Naturally, Arabica coffee grows as an understory tree/shrub in the montane rainforests of Ethiopia at altitude between 1000-2200m, with the most suitable range being 1500-1800 m. Coffee performs well in optimum average annual temperature of 18-240C with contrasting seasons. Areas suitable for coffee should also receive an average rainfall of 1500 – 2000 mm/year. Productivity of coffee depends on the agronomic practices. Coffee is a shade living plant due to its forest origin. Hence, agronomic practice for coffee production includes shade management, beside key activities like propagation and planting, pruning, weed control, soil fertility management, pest and disease control and irrigation (Soendahl et al. 2005). In Ethiopia, coffee is cultivated under shades, in nearly all traditional coffee production systems. The shade trees can be naturally regenerating trees in natural forests managed for coffee production or purposely planted shade trees. The density and diversity of shade trees varies from place to place, depending on age of the stand management, proximity to the natural forest that serves as seed source and intensity of management by the farmers. However, the canopy cover of shade trees is mostly well over 30%, and can be 60-85% in semi-forest and forest systems (Gole 2003). Propagation and planting: In Ethiopia, coffee is propagated through natural regeneration in forest systems, through both natural and through planting of local varieties in semi-forest. In garden and

20


plantations, it is always planted with favorite varieties of coffee locally known and suitable. For planting, seedlings of the selected coffee varieties are raised in shaded nurseries, 6-12 months before the planting season. Planting sites are prepared well ahead in time by digging holes. Seedlings are planted in previously dug holes. The young plants may start producing the first seeds 2.5-3 years after planting. Pruning: Pruning is an essential management practice in coffee production. It helps to achieve the desired plant shape, and contribute to sustainable higher yields, while contributing to disease and pest control. This may involve different methods, capping main branches at 1.8 m to complete stumping at 30 cm above ground. Complete stumping is recommended at about 8-12 years interval. However, pruning is not commonly practice by Ethiopian coffee farmers. Weed control: Weed should be controlled, as they compete with the coffee trees for moisture and nutrients. Tillage, herbicides, mulching and intercropping with cover crops may suppress weeds. In Ethiopia, weeds are controlled by mechanical removing/slashing or weeding 2-3 times per year. Mulching and cover crops are also used in intensively managed systems like plantation, home gardens and semi-forest. The use of herbicides is nearly non-existent in small holder coffee production systems, which is the dominant in Ethiopia. Soil fertility management: Fertilizer requirement for coffee production depends on the yield level and natural soil fertility. Nutrients are removed by harvested of fruits, and additional nutrients are also required for sustaining the vegetative growth. Parts of the total nutrients are recycled back to the soil by leaf fall, pruning, decaying feeder roots and litter from mechanical weeding. In Ethiopia, application of chemical fertilizer is almost non-existent. Alternative, organic fertilizers like manure, cover crops, nitrogen-fixing shade trees and coffee pulp are used. In forest and semi forest systems, however, coffee production entirely relies on natural soil fertility from nitrogen fixing trees, though there can be deficiencies in soil nutrients. Pest and disease control: Significant proportion of potential coffee yields are annually lost due to persistent disease and pest problems. The major coffee diseases in Ethiopia are coffee berry disease (CBD) and coffee wilt disease (CWD). Coffee leaf rust (CLR) is common, but has not posed any economically significant problem on coffee production due to presence of high genetic diversity and existence of tolerant genes. This may change over time, with the effects of climate change. For CBD, resistant varieties selected from the local landraces and developed by research institutes are being planted in areas affected by the disease. For CLR, however, the only solution is uprooting the diseased plant and destroying it by burning. In Ethiopia, cultural practices like shading and pruning are used for insect pest control. Coffee pest is not yet a serious problem in Ethiopia. The major coffee pests reported to occur in Ethiopia include nematodes, coffee berry borer, leaf minor, stem borer and scale insects. The problem of pests and disease is higher in the more intensively managed systems like plantations and home gardens. This could be attributed to narrow genetic pool of the coffee stock, reduced shade and habitat complexity. Hence, farmers sometimes might be obliged to consider uses of chemical pesticides. Irrigation: Normally, irrigation is essential in nurseries and during the first 1-2 years after field planting to enable the young plants to establish and survive the dry seasons. Irrigation is mostly applied only in nurseries in Ethiopia. However, in Harar and minor coffee growing areas in northern Ethiopia, where shade is not used, adult coffee trees are also occasionally irrigated. Critical periods when irrigation is applied are at flowering time, at berry expansion stage and at bean filling stage.

21


4 Environmental and social aspects of traditional coffee production systems The three traditional coffee production systems (forest, semi-forest and garden) have been practices for centuries. Compared to large scale commercial plantations, they have a number of environmental and social benefits. Some of the benefits are presented in this section.

4.1 Resilience to climate change Arabica coffee is a crop sensitive to climate changes, especially temperature extremes and drought. For instance, a study on cultivated coffee in Brazil reported that the productivity of Arabica is tightly linked to climatic variability, and is strongly influenced by natural climatic oscillations (Camargo 2010). The optimum mean annual temperature range for Arabica is 18–24OC (Teketay 1999). Higher temperatures leads to accelerated development and ripening, and eventually, loss of beverage quality. Excessive exposure to temperatures as high as 30 OC leads to stress, and challenge survival of the plant itself (Franco 1958; cited in Davis et al. 2012). Similarly extreme low temperature is also lethal for the coffee plant. A recent climate change impact prediction on indigenous Arabica coffee (Davis et al. 2012) showed a profoundly negative trend for the future distribution under the influence of accelerated global climate change. Accordingly, the current predicted areas of distribution of indigenous Arabica coffee in Ethiopia can be reduced by 38% in the most favorable scenario, and by 90% in the least favorable scenario, by 2080. This would place populations in peril, leading to severe stress and a high risk of extinction. However, the Ethiopian coffee production has great potential of resilience to the effects of climate change, due to (i) the diverse and adaptive management practices, (ii) presence of high genetic diversity of both wild and cultivated coffee, and (iii) vast highland plateau suitable for coffee. The management practices for coffee production involves growing coffee under deep, medium and noshade. Most of the shade grown coffee system resembles natural forest in structural complexity and diversity. Shade modifies the micro-climate, and can moderate extreme temperature by at least 5OC. Possessing over 99.7% of the coffee genetic resources (Kotecha 2008), Ethiopia also has a unique opportunity to select drought, disease, temperature extremes and other stresses resulting from climate change. The value of the genetic diversity can be witnessed from the tolerance of Ethiopian cultivated coffee to different diseases and pests that devastated coffee production other parts of the world, like coffee leaf rust, coffee berry disease, and coffee berry borer. A number of studies revealed that the forest coffee system supports high functional diversity in terms of disease tolerance and pest resistance (Adugna et al. 2005), and drought tolerance (Kufa 2006; Beining et al. 2005). These wild coffee genetic resources are important for both national and international coffee breeding programs that aim at increasing productivity, disease resistance and tolerance, low caffeine content and tolerance to drought, water logging and temperature extremes. Over 50% of African highland areas above 1500 m are found in Ethiopia. The highlands also receive high rainfall. The country has the largest highland plateau suitable for coffee production. The Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (2008) estimated that there are 4.48 million hecatares of highly suitable and 17.63 million hectares of moderately suitable areas for coffee production in Ethiopia. This gives ample space in which areas of coffee production can shift, in response of the

22


negative effects of climate change. Currently, only around 800,000 hectare is under coffee production in Ethiopia.

4.2 Mitigation to climate change: ecosystem services of coffee production systems Human-induced land-use change is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, resulting in climate changes. Though Ethiopia is contributing less than 2 tons of CO 2e per capita, it is one of the countries most affected by the consequences of climate change. Hence, as part of the global response to climate change, Ethiopia has developed its Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy in 2011. The vision of the country is to reach middle income country status by 2025, while following the green economy development path, with net-zero GHG emission, taking 2010 as the baseline (FDRE 2011). As indicated in the CRGE strategy, agriculture and forestry are the two dominant sources of emission, with 85% of GHG emission in 2010. The CRGE strategy also identified key sectors and activities that are relative cheap (less than 15 USD/ ton of CO 2 equivalent greenhouse gas- GHG), and have high potential for GHG emission reduction. Accordingly, the agriculture and forestry sectors again take the lion’s share, with 80% mitigation potential. The Ethiopian coffee productions offer the best potential to reduce GHG emissions in both sectors (as climate smart agriculture and managed forest). Maintaining the high canopy cover traditional coffee production system contributes to reduction in deforestation, and hence reduction GHG emission. Besides, the country’s ambitions plan to reforest over 7 million hectares of degraded forest areas can be combined with shaded coffee plantation in order to maximize economic feasibility of the intervention. Further, increasing the shade tree component in relatively open coffee production systems like home gardens in eastern Ethiopia can make the system climate-smart, and help in sequestering carbon from the atmosphere, while also making the production system resilient to the effects of climate change. The GHG emissions reduced through avoided deforestation, and also sequestered through enhancement of degraded forest share generate emission reduction (ER) credits that can be trade through emerging REDD+ climate finance architecture, and generate additional finance for sustainable forest management and agriculture.

4.3 Conservation of biodiversity In Ethiopia, the fore mentioned coffee production systems represent a gradient from the most traditional and structurally diverse systems (forest coffee) to the least diverse system (plantation). Coffee is also cultivated in areas with wide ecological and climatic varieties. Coffee can be cultivated within the range of 800 m (e.g. Majang in Gambella) to 2500 m above sea level (e.g., Yeju in Wollo), mean annual rainfall of 900 – 2000 mm) and temperature range of 15-32OC. The fact that the coffee production systems in Ethiopia occur along long ecological and land use gradients, means high ecosystem level diversity. The coffee forests are the most diverse and relatively intact remnant natural habitat of the Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot occurring in Ethiopia. They are rich in regional endemic species. Besides, they are also habitats for economically important crop genetic resources, like Arabica coffee, food crops like ensete and different root crops (Diascorea species), spices like Aframomum corrorima and Piper capense. Ethiopia is believed to possesses about 99.8% of the total Arabica coffee genetic diversity (Kotecha 2008). These diverse genetic resources are vital in selecting

23


coffee varieties that are of high quality, resistant to diseases/insect pests, and adapt to climate extremes (drought/ temperature). Cognizant of the importance of coffee forests for conservation of biodiversity at ecosystem, species and genetic diversity level, researchers have long advocated establishment of in situ conservation areas (Gole et al. 2002; Gole 2003; Senbeta 2006; Tesfaye 2006). Based on these research findings and transition of the country’s development strategy from food security and poverty reduction to integrated, sustainable development path, the government of Ethiopia established new conservation areas in the southwest part, rich in coffee forests. In 2010, two forest areas were designated for wild coffee conservation in Ethiopia: the Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve in Oromia and the Kafa Biosphere Reserve in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ (SNNP) regional states of Ethiopia, becoming the 1st UNESCO Biosphere Reserves in Ethiopia. Parts of the Sheka Forest Biosphere Reserve (designated in 2012) in SNNP regional state and the Harenna forest in the Bale Mountains National Park are among other conservation areas with vital wild populations of Arabica coffee. There are many other forests with wild coffee population, but not yet protected. These include Anfilo forest in Kelem Wollega, Belete-Gera forest in Jimma, Maji and Sheko forests in Bench-Maji, Sele-Nono and Saylem-Wanges forests in Illubabor.

4.4 Provision of different products and services vital for livelihoods The traditional coffee production systems provide a variety of ecosystem services that humankind relies on, including: provisioning (e.g., food, freshwater, wood and fiber, and fuel); regulating (e.g., climate, flood, diseases); cultural (e.g., aesthetic, spiritual, educational, and recreational), and supporting (e.g., nutrient cycling, soil formation, and primary production). It appears that these systems are providing many non-timber forest products like spices, honey, food in addition to coffee for local community living in and around the forest (Senbeta et al., 2013; Ango et al., 2014). For instance, the local communities get substantial amounts of wild food and traditional medicine from the forests. Some of the relevant species in this regard include Carissa spinarum, Cordiaa fricana, Ocimum lamiifolium, Ficus mucuso, Trilepisium madagascariense, Trichilia dregeana, Syzygium guineense, Clematis simensis, Passiflora edulis, Rhamnus prinoides, Piper capense, Piper guineense, Rubus apetalus, Capsicum frutescens, Solanum nigrum, Manilkara butugi, Mimusops kummel, Urticasimensis, Phoenix reclinata, Dioscorea praehensilis, Ensete ventricosum, and Aframomum corrorima. The seeds of Corrorima are used as spice widely used in Ethiopian dishes and is equivalent to Indian cardamom. It also has medicinal value. These systems are also providing regulating services such as carbon sequestration and climate regulation, waste decomposition and detoxification, nutrient dispersal and cycling (Negash and Starr 2014). As these systems are located on the mountains, they are important in watershed management and as water catchments and erosion barriers, including a role in the capture and transport of water and protection of soils against erosion. These coffee production systems have an important role in stabilizing water quality and maintaining the natural flow patterns of the streams and rivers originating from them (Umencdeoet al. 1993). The Ethiopian coffee production systems also provide supporting services like purification of water and air, crop pollination and seed dispersal, and pest and disease control (Ango et al. 2014; Lemessa et al. 2014). More importantly, about 25% of the Ethiopian population is engaged in coffee production, processing and marketing services, and derives their livelihood from these systems. These coffee production systems plays critical role in supporting socioeconomics aspect of millions of people in Ethiopia. In the main coffee growing areas, like the Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve, about 87% cash

24


revenue is earned from non-timber forest products like coffee, honey and spices of which coffee account overs for 70% (Seyoum 2010). If there is market for the diverse coffee genetic resources globally, Ethiopia can earn up US$ 1.5 billion per year, provide useful genes to the major producers worldwide (Hein and Gatzweiler 2006).

5 Coffee processing Coffee processing is a critical operation in the production of quality coffee. The quality of coffee can be enhanced or compromised in the course of processing. Generally, there are two coffee processing methods: the dry and the wet methods. The wet processing method often gives better quality.

5.1 Dry processing method This method involves drying red cherries, without using water at any stage. The harvested ripe cherries are thinly spread over a raised bed and raked at regular intervals to prevent fermentation and to ensure even drying. The cherry is dried from a moisture content of about 65% to 12%. The cherries are dried on beds constructed from chicken wire and fixed on wooden frames raised about 80 cm above the ground. A synthetic black shade net is then placed over the chicken wire before the cherries are spread on top of it. A Hessian cloth is used to cover the drying coffee during mid-day to protect from strong sun. In the night and during rain, the Hessian cloth also serves to protect the coffee from coming in contact with the overlying polythene sheet. The following are steps and processes are followed in dry processing: When are the peels taken away?  Pick only fully ripe red cherries;  Perform sorting- to remove undesirable objects such as dry or damaged fruits, leaves, etc;  Start sun drying on the day of harvest by spreading cherries on raised beds. Coffee harvested on different days should be dried separately;  The cherries must be spread into thin layers (maximum 3 cm) when still fresh. Otherwise, there is a risk of mould developing and black beans forming;  The drying cherries must be raked regularly several times a day to ensure even drying;  At night and in adverse weather conditions, drying cherries should be moved to the center of the bed and covered with materials like Hessian cloth followed by opaque polythene sheet to avoid moisture absorption and rewetting;  Take dry coffee to store when it attains optimum moisture content (below 12%). Drying cherries takes 10-15 days depending on the prevailing temperature.

Figure 10. Drying bed and coffee cherries being turned on drying bed.

25


5.2 Wet processing method The wet method involves use of water in most stages. This method involves several stages whereby ripe cherries are transformed into parchment coffee. In fully-fledged conventional wet processing, red cherries are pulped, fermented under water until the mucilage is degraded so that it can be easily washed off. Fermentation period in most cases varies from 12 to 48 hours depending on the temperature of

the locality. The

parchment is then washed and dried to attain a moisture content of 1011.5%. Figure 11. Manual and hand-driven pulpers.

5.2.1 Stages in wet processing I. Selective picking of cherries: Coffee cherries for wet processing should be mature and fully ripe. Ripe cherries have adequate pulp and mucilage which facilitate pulping. Cherries in mixed stages of maturity would cause pulping and fermentation problems,

which

have

series

of

negative consequences for the quality of the product. II. Sorting: The first operation in coffee processing following picking is sorting, the purpose of which is to remove undesirable objects such as leaves, twigs, stones, as well as diseased or pest infected, immature, over ripe and dry cherries. Undersized cherries which would escape pulping

are

also

removed

and

processed by dry method, and may be used for own consumption. Use clean material such as canvas, drying trays or mesh wire beds; cherries should not come into contact with the soil during sorting. III. Checking and adjusting the pulper: Checking and making the necessary adjustment to the pulping machinery is a crucial activity prior to pulping. Pulpers are adjustable to be able to pulp different size of cherries. Perform test run with sample cherries and do adjustment of the machine based on the beans or passage of many unpulped cherries together with the pulped ones.

26


Adjustment is normally done three times during the processing season: at the beginning, middle and end season. The pulper should be kept in clean and good mechanical order. IV. Pulping: Pulping is the mechanical removal of the red outer skin and pulp from the cherry to produce parchment coffee. This is performed by squeezing the cherry to release the parchment coffee out of the pulp, and facilitated by the lubrication from the mucilage formed between the pulp and the parchment. But in over-ripe cherries, the mucilage layer is dried up, while in the green cherries, it is not fully developed. So, pulping under both conditions will result in large number of damaged beans due to lack of adequate mucilage. Pulping is done via a stream of water which helps the cherries to be fed to the pulper. The water also facilitates separation of the parchment coffee and the pulp. V. Drying parchment: Freshly harvested and pulped coffee has high moisture content. For example, after the parchment coffee has been washed and drained, it will have a moisture content of 50-65%. Drying is thus the process of reducing the moisture content of this product down to 1011.5%. Drying of pulped coffee is a critical operation and is done with care, as coffee of excellent origin can lose its quality if drying is not done properly. Under-drying causes rapid fading of bean color while over-drying leads to unnecessary weight losses and quality degradation. At 10.5% moisture content the parchment is fully dry and safe for storage. At this moisture content and 60% relative humidity, the coffee suffers no quality losses if properly stored. Though similar methods are used for drying both cherry and parchment coffee, drying area requirement for dry method is, however, larger for the same quantity of drying cherries. VI. Procedure in drying parchment coffee: Drying is being done on raised beds to allow aeration and avoid getting into contact with soil. Drying of parchment can be categorized into two: skin drying and final drying. During skin drying, clean portable hand trays (of 2 x 1 m) made of 4 mm mesh wire nailed on wooden frames are used. Pulped/ washed parchment is thinly spread over the tray (maximum 3 cm to give 10 kg/m2) to promote thorough drainage of moisture and skin drying (Figure 13). Frequently stir, and remove pulps, unpulped and any defective beans, since all these are clearly seen at this stage. At this stage, all the moisture adhering to parchment is removed and the skin dries. Since pulped coffee remains with mucilage 3 , which can easily get mould and fermented, special care has to be taken during skin drying. Skin drying should be accomplished within a short period of time (within 4 hours for fully washed coffee, about 1-2 days for pulped ones) to prevent fermentation. The parchment is then transferred to bigger raised drying beds made of chicken wire and plastic net for final drying.

Figure 12. Drying parchment coffee after pulping.

3

A sticky, gelatinous polysaccharide substance covering coffee beans in the fruit. 27


The following are procedures to be followed in skin drying:  After completing the skin drying, transfer the parchment to the final drying beds- the purpose of which is to reduce moisture content from about 47% to 10-11.5%. The parchment should be thinly spread on the drying bed (thickness should be more than 2 cm), to ensure even drying. As the parchment dehydrates, the thickness may gradually increase;  Regularly stir the drying parchment as this facilitates full exposure of beans to sunlight and ensures homogenous drying;  Continuously pick defective and damaged beans and any other impurities;  Heap parchment coffee towards the middle and cover by Hessian cloth during mid-day and open in late afternoon, as high temperature at noon will cause shrinking and cracking to the drying parchment. At early heaping might not be advisable as this leads to fermentation;  To protect parchment from rain and night dew, pile the coffee in the middle and cover with Hessian cloth followed by plastic sheets;  Store the dry coffee preferably in the morning to avoid unnecessary hulling. The duration of the drying period depends on several factors such as, temperature, sun intensity, relative humidity, and the stirring condition. In general, drying parchment will take about 7-10 days to attain a moisture content of about 10-11.5%. VI. Determine proper dryness of coffee: When the back side of the bean is dark and the remaining part is green, its moisture content is estimated to be 10-13%. Fully dry coffee will attain light blue green color and hard to break. At this stage the moisture content is about 10-11.5%. It is also possible to test the degree of dryness of the beans by biting them. If the teeth leave a mark on the beans it is not dry enough; if it breaks, it is an indication of dryness. Similarly, when one tries to cut the bean using a knife, fully dry bean will slip away. Moreover, dry parchment coffee is light and gives a hash sound when one moves a batch of coffee in his/her hand.

5.3 Storage of dry coffee Coffee storage and handling is one of the crucial processes influencing quality, and thus needs due care. The dried coffee should not be stored in an environment where it can pick up or lose moisture and undesirable smell. Dry coffee should be stored in sisal bags placed on wooden battens raised 1520 cm above the ground level, and about 30 cm away from the wall or roof to encourage ventilation, as well as about 1 m away from corrugated iron sheet roof. In general, storage facilities should be clean, cool, shaded, dry and well ventilated. In conditions of high relative humidity and temperatures, coffee beans will absorb moisture and develop mould. They may be bleached out in color and lose some desirable flavor. Storage temperature of about 20 OC, and relative humidity of 50-60% is recommended. Dry cherry coffee can be stored longer in relatively similar conditions than parchment without deteriorating in quality, since they are still covered with the husk. Given the small scale coffee production in the area, it is difficult to build such storage facilities by individual farmers. However, such storage facility can be built by cooperatives if the farmers are organized. It is also possible to arrange collection of dried coffee by coffee buys immediately, so as to avoid quality deterioration due to poor storage at farmers’ homes.

6 Coffee quality The quality of coffee we consume depends on different factors. Many things can be done wrong or right, on the way from the coffee plant to the beverage consumed at home. At all these stages, the quality parameters also differ. Generally, the quality of a cup of coffee we consume can be

28


influenced by the variety/genetic, location, processing, storage/transportation, roasting and brewing. The genetic/ variety of the crop plays an important role in coffee quality. Arabica coffee is considered to be of higher quality, as compared to Robusta coffee. There are also significant differences even between varieties of Arabica coffee. For instance, ‘Geisha’ variety of Ethiopian origin and grown in Panama was sold on auction at 220 Euro/kg in 2007, mainly due to its intrinsic quality. The quality of coffee can also be affected by attributes of its locality like: location, elevation, temperature, insolation, rainfall, soil conditions, nutrients, shade and fertilization. In Ethiopia, there are coffees of different qualities resulting from locality and varieties differences, like Harar, Sidama and Yirgacheffe. Processing also affects coffee quality. Processing is a measure that has to be taken in order to transform ripe coffee fruits into ‘green’ coffee beans ready for export. As described above, processing can be either sun-drying/natural or washing/wet method. When compared, ‘washed’ coffee has a clean, straight, acidic character combined with a light body, whereas ‘natural’ dried coffee tastes more fruity, intense, with full body, not as acidic but with distinct sweetness. Storage and transport conditions also affect coffee quality and needs to be handled in care. Roasting is another crucial stage that affects coffee quality. A roaster can either bring everything out of a green coffee, or lose the whole batch (Spittel 2013). Espresso usually darker and filter coffee is usually lighter. Lightly roasted filter coffee still has freshness and an intense acidity. Likewise, brewing coffee is also crucial for a good cup of coffee. It depends on the right relationship between ground coffee and water, the right temperature, the right extraction time and, in some case, the right air pressure. Preference for taste of coffee, however, differs from country to country. A good taste profile in one country, might not be associated with a good cup of coffee in other parts of the world. Tastes are diverse from continent to continent and even from country to country. Japanese like fine light body, floral, tea and fruity notes with balanced sweetness. Germans like their coffee more robust and less acidic, whereas Scandinavians prefer high acidity.

7 Coffee certification Consumer concerns over health, poverty, social injustice and environmental destruction led to the emergence of product labels regarded as sustainability brands in the early 1990s in the food and beverage industry. Organic and EurepGAP brands were some of these. Being the most marketable commodity, coffee was one of the first products to be labelled. Today there are various coffee certification schemes in the world. Each concept follows a different approach, developed by different stakeholders under different agendas and backgrounds. All concepts, however, set up standards and principles, defined with a set of criteria and indicators (classified in compulsory & optional, major & minor, minimum requirement, etc.) that serve as parameters for verification. Certified coffee is no longer a small market niche. In 2009, more than 8% of all the green coffee exported worldwide had some form of certification or credible claim of sustainability. The Netherlands is the leader in market share with almost 40% of its coffees now certified. The United States market is second with 16% of all coffee imports as certified. Certified coffees in Denmark, Sweden and Norway have passed 10% market share. This is likely the case also in smaller markets such as Switzerland and Belgium. The market share in Germany is nearly 5%. Northern European markets from the United Kingdom across to the Nordic countries tend to have higher levels of awareness and demand for such coffees. Italy and France are both showing several percent shares

29


while neighbouring countries such as Spain, Portugal and Greece have very low levels of penetration (Pierrot et al .2011). Certified coffees are growing in other non-traditional markets as well. In the Republic of Korea, Australia and Singapore they are already highly visible in retail market outlets. The same is true, but only in the largest urban areas, for Brazil, Chile, China, India, and Mexico. Japan, a major consuming country accounting for approximately 6% of total global coffee demand, has seen the market share of certified coffees grow faster than nearly any other segment. Table 1. Worldwide sales of certified coffee (60-kg bags), according common certification standards (Pierrot et al. 2011).

Standard Certified Organic FLOcertified/Fairtrade Rainforest Alliance Certified Utz Certified 4C verified

2001 2002 2003 389,000 - 700,000

2004 -

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 867,000 1,117,000 1,492,000 1,625,700 1,693,055

-

-

- 403,700

566,565

867,730 1,036,815 1,370,200 1,526,216

-

- 53,000 123,000

209,750

452,535

691,565 1,038,250 1,459,715

-

-

479,000 -

600,000 -

842,000 1,291,000 1,430,000 194,000 492,500

-

-

In Ethiopia, certification was introduced 15 years ago. Following the shocking price fall in the coffee market in the early years of the new millennium, the Government of Ethiopia invited some European based consultants to come up with a strategy which could help Ethiopian coffee to become competent in the world market. In 2002 many scholars having reliable experience in the coffee sector came to Ethiopia. BCS Oeko Garantie GmbH, a German based organic control body, started certification during the same period as sole organic certifier for the major Cooperative Unions in the Country including Oromia, Sidama, Yergachefe Coffee farmers Unions. BCS was certifying according to European Regulation EC 834/2007 and 889/2008, National Organic Program (NOP) Final Rule and Organic JAS (Japanese Agricultural Standard). Four years later, other certifying bodies like Control Union and IMO came to Ethiopia and took the certification business to the next level. Activities and structures have continuously evolved ever since. Ethiopia has increasingly attracted the attention of many international standard holders, like FLO Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, Starbucks’ C.A.F.E. practices, 4Cs and UTZ Certified. This section describes the major certification standards currently being operating in Ethiopia and their impacts.

7.1 Coffee certification schemes Generally there are two types of certification schemes; National standards and private standards. National standards: Those standards derived from regulations formulated by either a single nation or a group of nations (Like AU, EU, USA). These standards are enforced by law. These types of certification schemes are often owned by the governments or international unions. Organic standards are categorized under this classification. Private standards: Private standards are those certification schemes owned by specific organizations in order to attain specific objectives which could be either social, economic or ecological (environmental). Private standards are often regarded as a means to improve the sustainability of producers, and to fulfil corporate social responsibility objectives. The private standards include Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, Starbucks’ C.A.F.E. practices, 4Cs and UTZ Certified

30


Though certification started late in Ethiopia, the major ones are currently actively engaged in the coffee sector today. Some of the schemes that are actually or potentially most relevant for the Ethiopian coffee sector are discussed below briefly. Besides, a comparison matrix of major certification types is presented in Annex 1. 7.1.1

Fairtrade Fairtrade is the most recognized private standard among Ethiopian farmers, since it started first in response to the global coffee crisis of early 2000s. The Fairtrade concept is considered as a strategy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. It aims at improving producers’ living and working conditions by setting up minimum prices and price premiums as well as guaranteeing a set of social standards of International Labor Organization (ILO). Fairtrade is primarily concerned with alleviating poverty through greater equity in international trade. Fairtrade is governed in most of the world by the Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (FLO). Price and Premium: Buyers shall pay producer organizations at least the fair trade minimum price as set by FLO. In addition to the fair trade minimum price, the buyers shall pay a fair trade premium as set by FLO at 10 US Dollar cents per kilo of coffee. For certified organic coffee, an additional premium of 15 cents per pound of green coffee will be due, on top of the fair trade minimum price or the market reference price. If the market price is higher than the fair trade minimum price, the market price shall apply. The fair trade premium is paid on top of the market price. For Arabica, the reference market price shall be based on the New York C contract. The price shall be established in U.S.-cents per pound, plus or minus the prevailing differential for the relevant quality, basis freight-on-board (FOB) origin, and net shipped weight. Trade cooperatives receive a minimum price of $2.62 per kilo or $3.02 per kilo if the coffee is also certified organic. In Ethiopia this money has being used for infrastructure development within the district where the cooperatives are founded. Fairtrade in Ethiopia: Almost all coffee cooperative unions found in Ethiopia are certified with Fairtrade FLO certification. The number of Fairtrade certified farmers is estimated to be 150,000 with total farm land of 100,000 ha. The annual sale for Fairtrade certified product is estimated at 10,000 metric ton. The expected premium payment for the farmers and (or) to their cooperative union is about 600 million ETB or close to 30 million US Dollars. The most important thing to be noticed here is that 65% of the certified product is sold as double certified with organic. Draw backs of Fairtrade: The fairness of Fairtrade is becoming under question as big companies which pay less for the product (like Starbucks) are joining the Fairtrade certification. Farmers in Latin America have gone further and established their own certification system called SPP (small producers symbol) which could replace the current Fairtrade certification. Fairtrade doesn’t give due attention to the production system and quality control. Ecosystem management is also ignored. 7.1.2

Organic certification Organic standards were the first certification schemes brought to the Ethiopian coffee sector. Organic agriculture is seen as a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agroecosystem health, including biodiversity, nutrient cycles, and soil biological activity. All organic standards require that the production system is free of any synthetic (chemical) inputs including pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fertilizers. In addition to the farm, the whole value chain should be kept away from contamination and cross contamination.

31


Any producer who would like to get certification for organic standards should keep the farm free from any chemical input, at least for 3 years. Organic certifications are not private standards but derived from organic regulation of nations. Thus a number of organic standards are there. The most popular standards are discussed below. a. EU organic regulation EC 834/2007 and 889/2008: Formulated by European Commission any product certified by this standard could be sold in every EU member countries and other nations accepting the regulation including China in the Middle East, Australia as well as Africa. This standard is the most preferred organic certification scheme for Ethiopian producers as it gives the option to sell their coffee to more than 30 Countries. When compared to other certificates the criteria are less complicated and are revised over time. The certificate differs from other schemes in that it forbids the parallel production (production of organic and nonorganic products in the same production system). Almost all organic certified farms in Ethiopia have valid certificate of this EU Regulation. b. NOP (National Organic Program of the US) USDA: NOP Certification standard was prepared based on National Organic Program of the United States. This scheme requires the use of a buffer zone of 5 meters whenever there is noncertified land in the vicinity of the organic farm. The other criteria unique to NOP standard is that the non-compost animal dung or a compost which hasn´t stayed 120 days on the field cannot be used on the farm. With this certificate the client can sell its product in the USA and Canada. c. Organic JAS (Japanese organic Standard): Organic JAS is Japanese organic standard. It is the most complicated of the three. The submission of standard operational procedure is requested by this standard. In addition every time facilities at a farm or processing unit gets cleaned the cleaning measures should be documented. Certification cost: Cost for organic certification is relatively expensive, mostly because the standards are national regulations. In addition, the control body controls all stages of the value chain and issues a transaction certificate when the product arrives at the country of destination (seen Annex 1). Price and premium: The premium is generally better than for any other certification. For Ethiopian coffees, on average about 13 Birr per kilo of green coffee is being paid, which is about 0.65 US Dollars. Organic certification in Ethiopia: In Ethiopia, most coffee production systems are complying with organic standards. This holds true for semi-forest production systems in the Western and South Western part of the Country, the garden coffee system of Southern Ethiopia as well as the intensive coffee plots in Hararge Highlands. Unlike other certification schemes, producers do little or nothing to get the certification as agro chemical inputs are rarely used. For instance, Minten and co-authors (2015) reported that only 2%, 1% and 0.5% of coffee producing households use chemical fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide, respectively. Any producer exporting more than 200 bags of green coffee could make a reasonable profit from organic certification. Thus, despite its relatively higher certification cost, producers prefer the organic certification more than anything, because higher demand for such certified products. Besides, there is a high demand for products with Fair Tradeand organic certificates. Currently about 160,000 ha of land is certified organic in Ethiopia. Draw backs: Organic certification is the easiest scheme to comply with for Ethiopian farmers. However despite some recommendations, the standards do not force the overall biodiversity conservation like shade trees management. For Ethiopian producers, the transition period of 3 years

32


which is requested for new producers engaging in the certification is not logical, not economical either, as coffee producers do not use chemical inputs like fertilizer, herbicides and pesticides even without certification. 7.1.3

Rainforest Alliance The Rainforest Alliance certification is owned by a USA based organization called Rainforest Alliance. Unlike the Bird Friendly certification, Rainforest Alliance opts for a holistic approach for the conservation of tropical rain forest. Thus it is not exclusively an environmental certification, it covers a number of ecological issues (soils, habitat, animals handling, and shade trees) as well as community relations and fair treatment of workers. The main objective of the Rainforest Alliance certification is encouraging sustainable farming. The certification scheme is based on the three pillars: environmental protection, social equity and economic viability. What makes Rainforest Alliance different from other schemes is that the certification is awarded based on a score for meeting a minimum number of an array of criteria. Certification cost: Fees to producers include an annual fee based on the size of the certified area, as well as annual auditing fees. The auditing cost is higher when compared to other certification schemes, as the audit requires at least 5 days for single audit site (large scale plantations or cooperative/farmers group). On average 100,000- 123,000 ETB (5-6 thousand US dollars) is required for certification of a single site. Price and premium: There is no minimum price set, but producers can use the certification to negotiate a better price for their coffee, generally an additional 10 to 20 US cents per kilo. Experience Ethiopia: Rainforest Alliance certification is known to Ethiopian producers since the last 5 years. The major coffee unions in Ethiopia certify 2-3 cooperatives each year. As the audit is more intensive, small volume of product is being certified each year. Draw backs: One can be certified even if there is no proper shade in the coffee. It has not “required criteria” for forest management, but they are included in the optional criteria; the shade criteria are not as strict as the BirdFriendly standards. Therefore it is important to note that Rainforest Alliance-certified coffee may not be shade grown. 7.1.4

Bird Friendly The Bird Friendly standard was developed by ecologists at the Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center. Unlike other standards the criteria formulated for Bird Friendly certification is purely for ecological/ conservation objectives. Hence, it is regarded as an ecological standard. Bird Friendly certification uses organic certification (NOP) as a bench mark; i.e., any producer requesting for Bird Friendly certification should be certified organic. The main requirements for the standard includes main shade canopy of 12 meters and above, at least 40 % shade cover, and at least 11 different shade tree species. Cost of certification: Generally Bird Friendly is a low cost certification as the certificate is valid for 3 years. There is no certification cost requested by the owner of the standard (Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center). The only incurred cost is inspection and certification cost charged by control Bodies which could be between 10,000-15,000 ETB (500-750 US Dollars) per site.

33


Price and premium: There is no minimum price set, but producers can use the certification to negotiate a better price for their coffee, generally an additional 5 to 10 cents per pound is expected. Importers pay a fee of $100/year and roasters pay 50 cents/kg which is used by the organization to enhance the conservation activities. Experience in Ethiopia: When compared to other coffee certification schemes Bird Friendly is at an infant stage in Ethiopia. Currently less than 5 producers are certified with a total area of 2000 ha. Drawbacks: Bird Friendly certificate gives due attention only to the ecological aspect (habitat quality) not the production aspect (chemical use, labor/social issues). The production aspect is indirectly considered, since prior organic certification is a requirement.

7.1.5 UTZ Certified UTZ Certified is also a widely used standard in Ethiopia. UTZ emphasizes on transparency and traceability in the supply chain (chain of producing, processing and distributing products- all processes and steps involved from producer to final consumer) and efficient farm management. The latter includes good agricultural practices such as soil erosion prevention, minimizing water use and pollution, responsible use of chemicals, and habitat protection. Certification requires compliance with mandatory control points; the number required control points increases over a four-year period. Fees to producers include auditing fees. The first buyer in the supply chain pays a small fee per-pound (just over 1 US cent) that is passed along through the chain. Price and premium: There is no minimum price set, but producers can use the certification to negotiate a better price for their coffee, which currently is around 12 US cents/kg for Arabica coffee. Experience in Ethiopia: Following Fair Trade and Organic, UTZ Certified ranks third among the certification schemes in Ethiopia today. Currently there are 19 producers with about 10,000 ha of land certified. Drawbacks: The standards in the Code that deal with the environment are quite general and lack specificity for meaningful protection of habitats and biodiversity. There is no requirement for forest management. Some criteria are not applicable in Ethiopian farmer’s standard (like paying more than 2 USD for a daily laborer, building standard living quarters for workers who live on site, etc). The market demand is low when compared to fair trade and Organic certification. Starbucks C.A.F. E. (Coffee and Farmer Equity) Practices: This is not among the common certification standards in Ethiopia. C.A.F.E. Practices ensures that Starbucks is sourcing sustainably grown and processed coffee by evaluating the economic, social and environmental aspects of coffee production. These aspects are measured against a defined set of criteria detailed in the C.A.F.E. Practices Generic and Smallholder Scorecards.

7.2 Farm management within certified farms Farm management system for certified and noncertified products is entirely different. Whenever a farm is brought under any certification the whole system should get changed in order to incorporate

34


the specific criteria required by the standard owner. The specific farm and post-harvest management system for each standard is discussed below and also summarized in Annex 1.

7.2.1 Seed, seedling and nursery The use of GMO seeds is strongly condemned by all coffee certification standards listed above. If it is a new farm, organic seeds or landrace seeds with known history could be used. If seeds are bought from the market, documentation showing the organic origin of the seeds is required in case of organic certification. No application of chemicals (except fumigants) is allowed on the nursery. Irrigation water coming from non-organic fields is not allowed on the nursery site. The standards don’t say anything about spacing but generally wide spacing (3x3 m) is recommended. Every field activity should be recorded. UTZ requires the adaptability and health of the seeds used on the nursery site. 7.2.2 Management on farm All coffee certification schemes listed above requires the establishment of internal control systems if the certificate owner is farmers group. Organic standards require organic fertilizers: compost, green manure, animal dung, plant remnants or non-synthetic fertilizers are required for the field. If animal dung is going to be used it should be fully composted. Weeding is done mechanically while biological and mechanical pest management is applied throughout the production season. At least weeding should be done 3 times in the year for economical coffee production. Application of chemical herbicides is not allowed, especially in organic certified farms. The use of chemicals (pesticides, herbicides) within a list is allowed for Rainforest Alliance and UTZ certified (SAN 2009) and avoid prohibited one (SAN 2011; http://www.san.ag/biblioteca/docs/SANS-2-1_Prohibited_Pesticide_List.pdf; Annex). Registration, record of re-entry time, proper clothing for personnel involved and the handling of chemical “waste” on the farm is priority for Rainforest Alliance and UTZ Certified. Bird Friendly doesn’t mention anything about inputs, though prior organic certification is the requirement. The discharge of any chemicals or other wastes from coffee processing (mucilage, husk, and waste water from wet-processing fermentation tanks) to either water bodies or natural environment is strongly prohibited by UTZ and Rainforest standards. 7.2.3 Soil management All standards recommend the protection of soil against erosion. On organic fields, all the runoff coming from non-certified fields should be diverted using diversion canals. This is the major step to protect field contamination. Within the farm soil, bund, stone bund, terraces or any other structure which minimize soil erosion is recommended. The soil in organic field should always be covered against rain drops or sunlight. This could protect soil structure, soil moisture and biological component of the soil. UTZ and Rainforest standards recommend the same. 7.2.4 Shade trees Shade trees between 25-50% canopy cover is recommended by Bird Friendly certification. The more the diversity of the shade trees is, the more the nutrient cycle within the system is maintained. It is not possible to certify a farm with less than 11 species of shade trees. Organic standards recommend good coverage of shade trees with diverse species but it is not critical criteria. 7.2.5 Biodiversity Rainforest Alliance recommends the conservation of biodiversity (species, habitat) with the farm imposing restrictions on use of biodiversity products (e.g. restricts hunting). While organic standards also recommend conservation of biodiversity, under UTZ, conservation activities are listed under

35


compulsory control points, which includes protection of forests against logging and/or burning, conservation of ecosystem health and the like (See Annex 1). Exclusion of chemicals use from organic certified coffee increase the biodiversity in the system. Many useful insects that can be killed by pesticides can persist. Exclusion of organic fertilizer also means many soil micro-organisms thrive in the soil and contribute to plant nutrition (mycorrhizal association). 7.2.6 Buffer zone A buffer zone of 3-5 m is required between organic certified farm and non-certified neighboring farms. If the neighboring farm is above the certified farm water diversion canal is recommended in addition to the buffer zone.

7.3 Postharvest handling and processing within certified projects The quality of coffee is primarily determined by agro-ecology, genetic makeup, and management practices applied to the coffee trees and post-harvest processing and handling, as outlined in the preceding section on quality. Is 7.3 written with focus on organic? Explain for the reader why so. 7.3.1 Wet processing Fully ripe red cherries handpicked and brought to the pulping machine are processed the same day it gets picked. If the harvested cherries is kept overnight, it becomes fermented and loose quality. UTZ certified and Organic JAS recommend to avoid fermentation and mold formation. Prior to pulping, the beans are sorted to remove undesirable objects like damaged fruits, coffee leaves and overripe beans. The wet processing will also be done with maximum care to achieve the desired cup taste. Steps in wet processing Compare page 25-27. 1. Sorting out (differentiating matured and un-matured fruits) 2. Weighting (by standard scale) 3. Pulping (separating of red Cherries husk from the seed) 3. The separated pulp goes to septic tank, and the seed goes to fermentation tank 4. Fermentation (coffee seed with mucilage will be kept for 72 hours in fermentation pond 5. Washing (the fermented coffee is washed by clean water to separate mucilage from the seed) 6. Socking (the washed clean coffee before it goes to drying table to remove water from the washed coffee it will be put in socking table) 7. Drying- (after the water is removed in the socking table clean coffee will be taken to drying table for 7-8 days until the moisture reaches 10-11.5 %) 8. Storage 7.3.2 Dry processing For dry processing, ripe cherries area spread over raised African bed or concrete floor (patio).To ensure even drying and prevent fermentation, the beans will be raked at regular interval until the cherry is dried to a moisture content of 12%. The beans are spread evenly with a depth of 3 cm, and wooden shovel is used to turn the coffee so as to avoid mold development and fermentation. The drying process might takes 12-16 days depending on the weather condition. When the moisture content becomes 12% the product is taken to the dry processing machine to remove the husk. The huller has the following components; Pre-cleaner removes stones, wood and other undesirable heavy materials. The huller removes the husk and the skins in one operation. The sieve removes the un-hulled, small cherries. The second cleaner removes impurities such as dust.

36


7.3.3 Cleaning measures In organic standards cleaning measures are required. Other standards do not require for cleaning measures but in general, it is advisable. All installations and machines used for the processing of coffee are cleaned regularly. The same applies to storage buildings and arenas. Cleaning is done by potable water only. The cleaning measures are documented by the responsible staff. The company makes sure whether the facilities are cleaned to the standard required by organic regulations whenever the product sent for the final processing at the units of subcontractors. 7.3.4 Cleaning and packing Both the washed beans (with parchment) and the dry processed beans are brought to cleaning machine for further cleaning. Here parchment removal, sorting for foreign materials, color sorting, and size grading is done. During size grading beans with size less than 14 mm are removed. The final product is packed for shipment. 7.3.5 Labeling In the organic certified coffee, the grading manager has to check all steps of the agricultural production and their documentation regarding conformity with the organic standard and its requirements. The results of these grading procedures are documented in the grading checklist; compliance is confirmed by signature of grading manager. If everything is alright, the organic product is qualified for the organic labeling (especially JAS). The other standards also requires the labeling and separation for all certified products. The packing materials are made of new and clean jute bags; each bag is filled of coffee with a net mass of 60 kg. The labels on the bag contain all the required information (including standard holder’s logo, name of certifying company, name of producer, grade of coffee, status of product etc.) is mentioned on the bags. 7.3.6 Documenting organic records The filled out documents (grading checklists, way bills and attachments) are filed in a locker of the grading manager’s office. Access is possible only for the grading manager or a person authorized by the grading manager. The documents must be kept at least for 3 years for most certificates. 7.3.7 Export system All sales and export activities are documented in detail in order to ensure transparency and traceability. For organic certificates, the control body is contacted for the issuance of a respective Transaction Certificate (TC) whenever there is a sale. For each graded and sold charge/Lot, all related documents (order or contract, invoice, delivery document, TC, etc.) will be kept for at least one year after the sale. For the other certificates the sale is announced on the portal of the certificates. By documentation of all activities - from production to sale/export - traceability of the organic agricultural products/of each lot is always ensured. Sample separation, packing, labeling and delivery will go through strict monitoring by quality controller and cupper. After the coffee is packed, all the government and company quality check and approval process is done and qualified transistor handles the delivery of coffee from Addis to Djibouti with responsibility of staffing to export containers and loading on the vessel.

37


8 Uniqueness of Ethiopian coffee production systems 8.1 Diversity of genetic resources and production system Several scientists have reported the existence of a great diversity in the Ethiopian coffee genepools (Sylvain 1955; Sylvain 1958; Meyer 1965; Monaco 1968; Charrier and Berthaud 1990; Tewolde 1990; Teketay 1999; Tesfaye 2006). The existence of such a great natural diversity in Ethiopian coffee genepool is mainly due to 1) maintenance of diverse landraces by local farmers, and 2) the presence of wild populations in the mountain forests. Maintenance of diversity on farm is one kind of effective strategy whereby resource-poor farmers practice low-input agriculture in marginal environments to create stable systems (Worede et al. 2000). Farmers purposely maintain diverse landraces on their farm to overcome environmental stresses like diseases, pests, drought and also conserve varieties that have specific qualities and are high yielding. The fact that coffee is a valuable commodity crop itself has motivated farmers to select and maintain such diversity over time. The diversity in traditional landraces is higher (75 out of the 130 types) in the coffee regions west of the Great Rift Valley. Studies based on genetic diversity using molecular markers (Lashermes et al. 1996) and agromorphological variations (Montagnon and Bouharmont 1996) also support the pattern of diversity in coffee similar to the traditional landraces distribution. The accessions from the eastern part of the Great Rift Valley are more similar to the coffee cultivars in other parts of the world outside of Ethiopia.

Figure 13. Predicted and actual distribution areas of wild coffee (left); protected areas and localities where wild coffee can persist impacts of climate change by 2080 (right) (source: Davis et al 2012).

Coffee production systems in Ethiopia are quite unique when compared with most of the coffee growing countries in the world. Ethiopia is the only country in which coffee is harvested from naturally regenerating and unmanipulated forest coffee populations. And about 95% of the coffee comes from subsistent farmers in Ethiopia who have neither the capacity nor the access to use chemicals, such as fertilizer, herbicides, insecticides, fungicide, or other pesticides. Importantly, these systems are rich in biodiversity. The traditional coffee production systems (forest, semi-forest and garden) only partially displace original forests and thus can be considered environmentalfriendly; and hence the vegetation structure and diversity are well maintained in these systems. For example, forest coffee and semi-forest coffee systems, present a complex vegetation structure

38


formed by herbs, shrubs, and two-three strata of trees. Plant richness in such system ranges between 17 and 50 species per 400 m2 sample plot (Senbeta and Denich 2006). Although, there is a difference from place to place, the garden coffee and plantation coffee also support quite large number of plant diversity per unit area. Additionally, the systems also house an important number of epiphytic plant species. Although no complete inventory of epiphytes in coffee production system is yet available, Senbeta (2006) reported over 60 epiphytic species in forest coffee and semimanaged forests systems.

8.2 Source of unique coffee types Ethiopia is the center of origin for Coffea arabica. It has a diverse genetic base for this Arabica coffee with considerable heterogeneity. Sylvain (1955; 1958) categorized the Ethiopian coffee into 12 major types based on several morphological characters and quality. The country is the source for globally acclaimed coffee types like Harar, Jimma, Lekemti, Sidama and Yirgacheffe. Hence, Ethiopia produces a range of distinctive Arabica coffees and has considerable potential to sell a large number of specialty coffees (Nure, 2008). In order to protect trade names of its unique and popular coffees, Ethiopia established the Ethiopian Fine Coffee Trademark Licensing Institute in 2005. The purpose of the institute is to set up a system to secure legal ownership of its unique specialty coffee names (like Sidama, Harar, and Yirgacheffe) in international markets (Minten et al. 2014).

8.3 Prospects of sustainable coffee production in Ethiopia Coffee plants cultivated in Ethiopia are adapted to shaded conditions, though many coffee producing countries have developed varieties that perform better in open sun. But, it compromises quality, disease tolerance and other agronomic qualities. Almost all popular premium quality coffee types from Ethiopia, except Harar are shade grown. The effect of shade on growth, production and quality of coffee in Jimma areas was reported by Bote and Struik (2010). The finding confirmed that shade trees protect the coffee plants against adverse environmental stresses such as high soil temperatures and low relative humidity. Shade also triggers differences in physiological behaviour of the coffee plants. It improves photosynthesis and increases leaf area index, resulting in better performance than possible in direct sun light. Consequently, coffee plants grown under shade trees produce larger and heavier fruits with better bean quality than those grown in direct sun light. Hence, The Government of Ethiopia is encouraging coffee production, with a plan of doubling production, while improving quality through improvement of processing and post-harvest handling. Coffee production is expanding in non-traditional coffee producer areas as well. There are incidences where coffee plants are established with little or no shade. With the current trends of climate change, many optimal coffee growing areas can be sub-optimal in the coming decades (Davis et al. 2012). It is also well documented that shade trees significantly improve coffee quality produced in sub-optimal conditions (Muschler 2001). Hence, beside the multiple environmental and socioeconomic benefits of shaded coffee production like resilience and mitigation to climate change, conservation of biodiversity, and provision of various goods and services as discussed in the earlier section (section 4), the sustainability of producing unique coffee qualities heavily depends on the maintenance of shade trees as the main component of the production system. Further, increasing productivity through application of organic fertilizer and improved management practices is desirable to be competitive with other producing countries. Ethiopia, however, has a

39


great advantage due to its possession of diverse coffee types and localities of production. Thousands of coffee types can be developed from the existing genetic and geographic variability. Ethiopia’s competitive advantage in the coffee market depends on its ability to develop different taste profiles from its wealth coffee genes and diverse growing environment. The trends in quantity and quality of coffee produced for export is increasing in Ethiopia for over the past decade. Through management practices and expansion of coffee growing areas, the quantity has increased tremendously. For example, coffee production has increase from around 160,000 tons in 2001 to over 400,000 in 2014, while areas under coffee has increase from 250,000 ha in 2000 to aroun 800,000 ha in 2014 (FAOSTAT, accessed in September 2015; Berhanu Tsegaye, MoA, Personal Communication 2015). The quality of exported coffee has also improved due to improved processing (both wet and dry methods) and increasing trends of certification/specialty coffee. Export of certified coffee was known in Ethiopia before 2002 and was started following the global coffee crisis. Since the export certified coffee (Fairtrade, Organic, Rainforest Alliance and Utz) has increased from nearly zero to the current estimate of xxx tons. The conventional coffee export, however, is still the dominant, since the big buyers are not interested in certified coffees. The demand for popular Ethiopian coffee types like Harar, Limu, Lekempti, Sidama and Yirgacheffe is high. Besides, more and more specialty coffee types are being developed at different coffee producing localities. Given the high demand and popularity of Ethiopian coffee types, Starbucks registered the premium coffee types like Harar, Sidama and Yirgacheffe, as its own trade names in 2004 with the US Patent and Trade Office. Ethiopia’s effort to register these coffee types as trade name of its premium coffee was denied in 2005, which led to legal battle between Starbucks Coffee Corporation and Ethiopia. In 2006, the two parties reached a mutually satisfactory agreement regarding the distribution, marketing and licensing of Ethiopia’s specialty coffee designations, which provided a framework for cooperation to promote recognition of Harrar, Sidama and Yirgacheffe (WIPO http://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2621). Due to the differences in quality profile of coffee produced in different localities, the government of Ethiopia is promoting maintaining and production of these different coffee types for specialty market. Even within the known coffee types like Yirgacheffe, one can find unique coffee types like Kochere, Wanago, Konga, and Guji. Most of these coffees are produced by small holder farmers. Buyers normally buy coffee in Ethiopia through one of three main channels: from exporters, from cooperative unions and directly from private estates. The third option of direct trade gives options for even small holder farmers that produce 30 bags of 60kg (at least 1800 kg) coffee to directly sell their to specialty coffee importer. This policy is to promote production and export of specialty coffee by smallholder producers, shortening the chain of coffee trade, which also increases the income margin for the producers.

9 References Adugna, G., Hindorf, H., Steiner, U., Nirenberg, H. I., Dehne, H.-W. and Schellander, K. 2005. Genetic Diversity in the Coffee Wilt Pathogen (Gibberella xylarioides) Polpulations: Differentiation by Host Specialization and RAPD analysis. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection 112: 134-45.

40


Ango, T.G., Börjeson, L., Senbeta, F. and Hylander, K. 2014. Balancing ecosystem services and disservices: smallholder farmers’ use and management of forest and trees in an agricultural landscape in Southwestern Ethiopia. Ecology and Society 19:30. Ayalew, T. 2014. Characterization of organic coffee production, certification and marketing systems: Ethiopia as a main indicator. A review. Asian Journal of Agricultural Research and Beining, A, Obso, T.K, Goldbach, H.E. and Fetene, M and Burkhardt, J. 2005. Contrasting Adaptation to Drought Stress in wild Populations of Coffea arabica in Ethiopiab. BioTeam Status Seminar, Bonn, Germany, March 14th-16th, 2005. Boot, W. 2011. Ethiopian Coffee Buying Manual: Practical Guide for Buying and Importing Ethiopian Specialty Coffee Beans. USAID. Bote, A.D. and Struik, P. 2010. Effects of shade on growth, production and quality of coffee (Coffea arabica) in Ethiopia. Journal of Horticulture and Forestry Vol. 3: 336-341. Buechley, E., Sekercioglu, Atickem, A., Gebremichael, G., Ndung’u, J. K., Mahamued, B.A., Beyene, T., Mekonnen, T., and Lens, L. 2015. Importance of Ethiopian shade coffee farms for forest bird conservation. Biological Conservation 188:50-60. Charrier A and Berthaud J 1990 Use and value of genetic resources of Coffea for breeding and their long-term conservation. Mitt Inst. Allg. Bot. Hamburg 23a, 65-72 Davis, A.D., Tadesse Woldemariam Gole, Baena, S. and Moat, J. 2012. The impact of climate change on indigenous Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica): predicting future trends and identifying priorities. PLoS ONE 7(11): e47981. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047981 Engelen, D. 2012. Comparing avifauna communities and bird functional diversity of forests and farmland in southwest Ethiopia. Plants and Ecology 2012:5. http://www.su.se/emb/publikationer/plants-ecology/2012-1.72745 FDRE 2011. Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Green Economy: the Green Economy Strategy. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa FDRE-Ministry of Trade. 2012. Coffee Opportunities in Ethiopia. Presentation of the Ministry of Trade of the FDRE. February 2012, Addis Ababa. Ferwerda F P 1976 Coffees Coffea spp. (Rubiaceae). In Evolution of crop plants. Ed. N W Simmonds. pp. 257-260. Longman, London, UK. Franco, C.M. 1958. Influence of temperature on growth of coffee plant. NewYork: IBEC Research Institute. 24 p Gole, T. W. Gole 2003. Vegetation Ecology of the Yayu forest in SW Ethiopia: impacts of human use and implications for in situ conservation of wild Coffea arabica L. populations. Ecology and Development Series, No. 10. 162 PP Gole, T.W., Denich, M., Teketay, D. and Vlek, P.L.G. 2002. Human impacts on Coffea arabica genetic pool in Ethiopia and the need for its in situ conservation. Pp. 237-247. In: Managing plant genetic diversity (J. Engels, V. Ramanatha Rao, A. H. D. Brown, and M. Jackson, eds). CAB International / IPGRI Gole, T.W., Teketay, D. and Kelbessa, E. 2013. Coffee is Ethiopia’s gift to the world. In Coffee- a global success (H.W. Lack, K. Grotz and Tadesse W. Gole, eds.). PP 12-19, Botanischer Garten und Botaniches Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Berlin. Gole, Teketay, D., Denich, M and Borsch, Th. 2001. Diversity of traditional coffee production systems in Ethiopia and their contribution for the conservation of coffee genetic diversity. In: Proceedings of the Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, Deutscher Tropentag - Bonn, 9-11 October 2001. University of Bonn. CD-ROM Gray, Q., Tefera, A., and Tefera, T. 2013. Ethiopia: Coffee Annual Report. GAIN Report No. ET 1302. Haarer A E 1962 Modern coffee production. 2nd ed. Leonard Hill, London, UK. Hein, L. and F. Gatzweiler. 2006. The Economic Value of Coffee (Coffea arabica) Genetic

41


Howard, B. 2015. Ethiopian Shade Coffee Is World's Most Bird Friendly. National Geographic, February 4, 2015. ICO 2015. Coffee Production Data. www.ico.org. Accessed on August 8, 2015: International Coffee Organization. Illy, E. and Illy, A. 2015. Biochemistry- the complexity of coffee: One of life’s simple pleasures is really quite complicated. Scientific American Summer 2015 pp 10Kotecha, S. 2008. Arabica’s from the Garden of Eden-Coffea Aethiopica. http://www.revistacafeicultura.com.br/index.php?mat=24556 (Accessed on 23/05/2015) Kufa, T. 2006. Ecophysiological diversity of wild Arabica coffee populations in Ethiopia: Growth, water relation and hydraulic characteristics along a climatic gradient. Doctoral Thesis. Center for Development Reseach (ZEF). University of Bonn. Germany. Lashermes P, Trouslot P, Anthony F, Combes M C and Charrier A 1996 Genetic diversity for RAPD markers between cultivated and wild accessions of Coffea arabica. Euphytica 87, 59-64 Lemessa, D., Hamba¨ck, P.A., and Hylander, K.. 2014. The effect of local and landscape level landuse composition on predatory arthropods in a tropical agricultural landscape. Landscape Ecol DOI 10.1007/s10980-014-0115-y Luxner L 2001. Ethiopian coffee industry: overcoming difficulties. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal 174: online at: http://www.teaandcoffee.net/0201/special.htm Meyer F 1965 Notes on wild Coffea arabica from southwestern Ethiopia, with some historical considerations. Economic Botany 19,136-151. Minten, B., Dereje, M, Engida, E., and Kuma, T. 2015. Smallholders and upstream transformation in global value chains: The case of coffee producers in Ethiopia. IFRI/ EDRI, Addis Ababa Minten, B., Tamru, S, Kuma, T. and Nyarko, Y. 2014. Structure and performance of Ethiopia’s coffee export sector. ESSP Working Paper No. 66. IFPRI and EDRI, Addis Ababa. Mittermeier, R.A., Gil, P.R., Hoffman, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J., da Fonseca, G.A.B., 2005. Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Conservation International, Washington. Monaco L C 1968 Considerations on the genetic variability of Coffea arabica populations in Ethiopia. In FAO Coffee mission to Ethiopia 1964-65. Ed. FAO. pp 49-69. FAO, Rome, Italy. Montagnon C and Bouharmont P 1996 Multivariate analysis of phenotypic diversity of Coffea arabica. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 43, 221-227. Muschler, R.G. 2001. Shade improves coffee quality in a sub-optimal coffee-zone of Costa Rica. Agroforestry Systems 51: 131-139. Negash, M. and Starr, M. 2014. Biomass and soil carbon stocks of indigenous agroforestry systems on the south-eastern Rift Valley escarpment, Ethiopia. Plant Soil, DOI 10.1007/s11104-015-2469-6. Nevo E 1998 Genetic diversity in wild cereals: regional and local studies and their bearing on conservation ex situ and in situ. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 45, 355–370. Nure, D. 2008. Mapping quality profiles of Ethiopian coffee by origin, in Eds. Adugna, G., Bellachew, B., Shimber, T., Taye, E., Kufa, T. 2008. Coffee diversity & knowledge, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 317-327. Pendergrast, M. 2010. Uncommon grounds: The history of coffee and how it transformed our world, Basic Books, New York, 424p Petit, N. 2007. Ethiopia’s Coffee Sector: A Bitter or Better Future? Journal of Agrarian Change. Vol. 7: 225–263. Pierrot, J., Giovannucci M., and Kasterine, A. 2011. Trends in the Trade of Certified Coffees: Technical Paper. Geneva, ITC, 17 pp. Ponte, S. 2002. The ‘Latte Revolution’? Regulation, Markets and Consumption in the Global Coffee Chain. World Development 30: 1099–1122. Resources. Ecological Economics, 60: 176-185.

42


SAN 2009. List of prohibited pesticides. Sustainable Agriculture Network. http://www.rainforestalliance.org/agriculture/documents/SAN_prohibited_pesticides_september2009.pdf Schmitt, C. B. 2006. Montane rainforest with wild Coffea arabica in the Bonga region (SW Ethiopia): Plant diversity, wild cofffee management and implications for conservation. Doctoral Dissertation, Center for Development Research, University of Bonn. Schoen D J and Brown A H D 1993 Conservation of allelic richness in wild crop relatives is aided by assessment of genetic markers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 90, 10623-10627. Senbeta W.F. 2006. Biodiversity and ecology of afromontane rainforests with wild Coffea arabica L. populations in Ethiopia. Ecology and Development Series No. 38, Center for Development Research. University of Bonn. Senbeta, F. Gole, T. W., Kelbessa, E. and Denich, M. 2013. Diversity of useful plants in Coffee forest of Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobotany Research and Applications 11:049-069 Senbeta, F., Denich, M., 2006. Effects of wild coffee management on species diversity in the Afromontane rainforests of Ethiopia. Forest Ecol. Manage. 232, 68–74. Seyoum, A. 2010. Microeconomics of Wild Coffee Genetic Resources Conservation in Southwestern Ethiopia: Forest zoning and economic incentives for conservation. Shaker Verlag, Germany Spittel, S. 2013. What makes a good cup of coffee?. In Coffee- a global success (H.W. Lack, K. Grotz and Tadesse W. Gole, eds.). PP 12-19, Botanischer Garten und Botaniches Museum BerlinDahlem, Berlin. Sylvain P G 1955 Some observations on Coffea arabica L. in Ethiopia. Turrialba 5, 3753. Sylvain P G 1958 Ethiopian Coffee-its significance for the world coffee problems. Economic Botany 12, 111-139. 8 Teketay, D. 1999 History, botany, and ecological requirements of coffee. Walia 20, 28-50 Teketay, D. and Tegineh, A. 1994. A study on landraces of Harer coffee in Eastern Ethiopia. In: J.H. Seyani and A.C. Kuni (eds), Proc. XIIIth Plenary Meeting of AETFAT, Malawi, 1:161 -169 Tesfaye, K. 2006. Genetic Diversity of Wild Coffea arabica Populations in Ethiopia as a Contribution for Conservation and Use Planning. Ecology and Development Series, No.44, Centre for Development Research, University of Bonn. Tewolde B G E 1990. The importance of Ethiopian forests in the conservation of Arabica coffee genepools. Mitt Inst. Allg. Bot. Hamburg Band 23a, 65-72 Tewolde, B.G.E. 1978. Some vegetative parameters of coffee, Coffea arabica L., proportional to yield. SINET Eth. J. Sci. 1, 51–57. Umencdeo, C. Ilmouk, N., Pereza, M. and Lockhus, N. I. 1993. Tropical montane cloud forests: conservation status and management issues. In: Tropical Montane Cloud Forests, pp. 17-24 (Hamilton, L. S., Juvik, J. O. and Scatena, F. N. eds.), East- West Center, Program on Environment. Worede, M. Tesemma, T. and Feyissa, R. 2000. Keeping diversity alive: an Ethiopian perspective. In Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity. Ed. S B Brush. pp 143-161. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, USA. Workafes W. and Kassu K. 2000. Coffee production systems in Ethiopia. In Proceedings of the workshop on coffee berry disease (CBD) in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, 13-15 August 1999. Ed. The International Development Consulting Firm. pp 99-106. Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

43


Annexes Annex 1: A comparison matrix of sustainable coffee certifications, created by SCAA Sustainability Committee in 2009

Certification / Verification Mission

Organic

Fair Trade Certified

Rainforest Alliance

Smithsonian Bird Friendly®

Utz Certified

Create a verified sustainable agriculture system that produces food in harmony with nature, supports biodiversity and enhances soil health.

Support a better life for farming families in the developing world through fair prices, direct trade, community development and environmental stewardship.

Integrate biodiversity conservation, community development, workers’ rights and productive agricultural practices to ensure comprehensive sustainable farm management.

Conduct research and education around issues of neo-tropical migratory bird populations, promoting certified shade coffee as a viable supplemental habitat for birds and other organisms.

Achieve sustainable agricultural supply chains, where: Producers are professionals implementing good practices which enable better businesses, livelihoods and environments; The Food industry takes responsibility by demanding and rewarding sustainably grown products; Consumers buy products which meet their standard for social and environmental responsibility.

4C Common Code Achieve global leadership as the baseline initiative that enhances economic, social and environmental production, processing and trading conditions to all who make a living in the coffee sector.

44


Certification / Verification Market Focus

History and Development

Organic


All markets

th

Trace back to 19 century practices formulated in England, India, and the US. First certification 1967. Developed into internationally recognized system with production throughout the world. * The organic coffee sector represented nearly 3 percent of the total U.S. green coffee imports in 2007

Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

All markets

Global, with special emphasis on N. America, Europe, Japan, and Australia

All markets

Mainstream and Specialty

Mainstream market (ambition: vast majority of coffee market)

Began as Max Havelaar in the Netherlands in the 1970s. Now the German-based Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (FLO) collaborates with more than twenty national branches throughout the world, including TransFair USA. TransFair USA has been administering the Fair Trade Certified label since 1998.

Begun in 1992 by Rainforest Alliance and a coalition of Latin American NGOs, the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN). First coffee farm certification in 1996. The Rainforest TM Alliance Certified program requires that farms meet comprehensive standards covering all aspects of production, the protection of the environment, and the rights and welfare of farm families and their local communities.

Founded in 1997 with criteria based on scientific fieldwork. Operated out of the SMBC office initially, it currently involves 14 organic certification agencies as the eventual managers of the program.

Begun in 1997 as initiative from industry and producers in Guatemala; Utz Kapeh became an independent NGO in 2000. First certified farms in 2001. In 2008, Utz Kapeh changed its name to Utz Certified – Good Inside to encompass more diverse agricultural commodities including cocoa, tea, soy, and palm oil.

Begun in 2003 as public private partnership project by the coffee industry and the German development cooperation to initiate a multistakeholder dialogue for defining a mainstream code of conduct for sustainability: The 4C Association was founded as an international membership association in December 2006. Operational in market since coffee year 07/08

45


Certification / Verification

Organic


Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

Code Founders

Certifiers and farmer groups began organic certification process around 1967.*

The first Fair Trade codes grew out of Solidaridad movement in The Netherlands. FLO, the Rainforest Alliance and SAN, Social Accountability International and IFOAM worked together to improve social standards and auditing practices

1980s farm-based research by SAN scientists and farmers, field-testing, and involvement of all relevant stakeholders.

A number of scientific studies in southern Mexico, Guatemala and Peru during the 1990s. Recent studies in Ecuador and Mexico support the criteria as being highly protective of biodiversity and providing refuge for biodiversity.

Field-based adaptation of EuropGap standard. Now officially GlobalGap equivalent plus. ILO Labor standards.

Multi-stakeholder adaptation of existing codes which resulted in a baseline Code of Conduct, Rules of Participation for Trade and Industry members, a Verification System, Support Services and a participatory democratic governance structure for decision making.

Scope of the Program

Organic Farming and processing practices.

Economic and environmental sustainability for farmers and their communities. Minimum price and social premium to cover costs of production and community-elected development programs. Organic premium for organic coffees. The model empowers small farmers organized

Sustainable farm management in most holistic sense – social, environmental, economic and, ethical improvements are the cornerstones of the program.

Certification aimed at the production area of the coffee agroecosystem. (Future development of program may address the landscape mosaic as well.)

Sustainability: Economic performance through productivity and farm professionalism; environmental standards to preserve flora fauna shade, buffer zones; Worker Health and Safety.

Exclude worst practices and continuously increase the sustainability of coffee production and processing in the economic, social and environmental dimension.

46



Organic


Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

into democraticallyrun cooperatives to compete on a global scale. Code Elements for Coffee Production

Environmental, farm production and processing standards.

Social, economic, environmental, democratic organization of cooperatives.

The Rainforest TM Alliance Certified program is based on the fundamental principles of sustainable agriculture including: best management practices; conservation of natural resources, ecosystems and wildlife; workers rights and benefits; and benefits to local communities.

Biophysical criteria of the shade component, provided that the farm is certified organic.

Socially, environmentally, Economic, social and and economically environmental dimension conscious growing standards.

47



Organic


Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

Scope of the Code

Federal standard with practices for producers and handlers applies to all organic product sold in US. Similar but unique standards are applied internationally.

Baseline and progress criteria. Continuous improvement required through Progress Requirements. Applies to democratically organized cooperatives formed by small-scale farmers.

More than 200 criteria (checkpoints); Field tested indicators. Applies to farms and coops of all sizes. Continuous improvement required.

Organic certification as a condition for BF certification. Certification applicable to estate farms and cooperatives. Inspection linked to organic inspection, but only every three years.

Baseline criteria with field-tested indicators and independent, third party auditing. Applies to farms and coops of all sizes. All countries possible. Continuous improvement required.

10 Unacceptable Practices and 30 Baseline criteria with 90 field-tested indicators; Participation possible with “average yellow”, continuous improvement towards “green” required. Applies to farms and to production structures of all sizes. Minimum capacity of “4C Unit” = 1 container of green coffee. Every country. “Stepping stone function” to provide easier access to certification/marketing schemes for producers.

Technical Assistance and Capacity Building

Part of many certifiers’ role. Organic research federally and privately funded by non-profits and NGOs. SCAN perhaps the most well-known Technical Assistance and

Provided by TransFair USA for specific projects through its Global Producer Services department, and by FLO (Fair Trade Labelling Organizations International) worldwide through its Producer Business

Provided by local NGO partners (Sustainable Agriculture Network), extensionists trained by the program, and by collaborating institutions. (TA and auditing are kept

Continual provision of training workshops to organic inspectors, NGO staff, cooperative technicians, and government representatives.

Provided by the program at very low cost to producers in alliance with other initiatives like the Coffee Support Network (CSN). Technical assistance providers are trained by Utz Certified and are available worldwide.

Support to 4C Units, members and other interested stakeholders through training-of-trainer workshops, educational sessions and access to tools & manuals; project facilitation; cooperation with other national and

48



Organic

Capacity provider network – for all systems, not just organic.

Inspection Frequency and Accreditation

Annual inspections for certified entities. USDA accreditation required for certifiers of organic product sold in US.

Communicatio n and Promotion

Business to consumer. Backed by Federal Governments. Consumer groups, suppliers, and some certifiers communicate benefits to consumers.


Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

Unit. FLO Liaison officers located in most of the countries to support producer organizations. (Technical assistance and audit are kept separately.) Annual inspections by independent and annually trained Fair Trade inspectors.

separate.)

international organizations and between members of the 4C Association. Regional Offices in mayor coffee regions.

At least annual audits by teams of biologists, agronomists, sociologists and other specialists trained, authorized and monitored by the Rainforest Alliance

Every three years, linked to organic inspection. Inspection/certificatio n arranged/provided by a USDAaccredited organic certification agency.

Independent auditors accredited to ISO 65 standard. 10 % shadow/surprise audits. Audits done annually.

Independent auditors accredited to ISO 65 standards and trained by 4C. Free tri-annual verifications for “4C Units”; free addendum verifications possible. Annual Self Assessment.

Strong promotional efforts to consumers and businesses through awareness campaigns, media and on-product labeling.

Business to business and consumer marketing, communications, and media outreach undertaken by RA staff. Business to business, on-product labeling and offproduct promotion backed by the Rainforest Alliance.

Business to consumer; business to business. Popular, trade, and academic articles.

Business to business and on-product labeling

Business to business. No product claim, seal or on-product labeling. Membership statement on pack possible.

49



Organic

Traceability/ Chain of Custody

Yes, required by USDA National Organic Program. Organic products traceable from retailer to producer.

Yes, traceable from roaster to producer.

Yes, traceable from roaster to producer; transparency ensured via mandatory transaction certificates.

Yes, traceable from roaster to producer.

Yes, traceable from roaster to producer following supply chain roles. Identity preserved and mass balance functionality. Audited chain-of-custody for logo users.

Identity preservation from roaster to container level (“4C Unit”). Traceable from 4C Unit to producer.

Yes, except handlers who do not further process and retailers.

Yes, in fact all major actors must be registered with the program.

Yes, engages all actors in supply chain, from producer to retailer. Rules/regulations for participation for actors along the chain include mandatory transaction certificates, license agreements, and seal approvals by Seal Approval Committee.

Yes. Farms are certified; actors further down commodity chain are registered and bound by written contracts.

Yes, rules for participation and chain of custody

Yes, membership association with rules of participation

Addresses All Actors in the Chain


Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

50


Certification / Verification Price Differential to Farmers

Fees to Producers

Organic


Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

Yes. Premiums versus non organic certified coffees are paid to farmers.

Yes, this is the heart of the program. All purchases must be at or above the Fairtrade Minimum Price as set by FLO (price varies by coffee type and origin). If the market price is higher than the Fairtrade Minimum Price, buyers shall pay the market price. Additionally, buyers must pay a social premium of USD$0.20¢ per kg and, when applicable, a minimum Organic Differential of USD$0.40¢ per kg.

Yes. Differential is negotiated between buyer and seller.

Growers have used BF seal to obtain 510 cents more per pound, over and above what they get for organic, with as much as an 18% “plus” in one longterm arrangement. Importers/roasters report seal tends to increase the speed of circulation of commodity.

Yes. Differential set by the markets. Feedback on market information of differentials and demand per quality provided to members.

No influence on mainstream market price mechanisms: Free negotiation between 4C members. Price should reflect coffee quality and sustainable production practices.

Vary by certifier. Inspection costs drive up costs but are being reduced and increased coverage provided by regional in-country certifiers.

Cost of auditing, reinspection fees

Cost of auditing plus an annual fee based on farm size. Group certification options improve access for smallholders. Auditing fees often paid for by buyers.

Per diem cost of added days at time of inspection, plus a minimal symbolic charge for the certificate (as growers are already paying for the organic inspection).

Zero from UTZ, auditing fees only

Yearly membership fees for all actors along the chain according to size and position in chain: producer’s fee is smallest. Free verification and trainings

51



Organic

Fees to Buyers

Certification costs vary by certifier. Fees ranging from $700 to $3000/year.

Price Premium Associated with Code

Average price differentials of USD $0.50¢ (+/-) per kg are paid to producers.

Fair Trade Certified Importers are not charged a licensing fee, but they must pay at least the Fair Trade Minimum and provide up to 60% of pre-harvest financing when requested by cooperatives. Licensed roasters pay TransFair USA USD$0.20¢ per kg to cover the cost of audits, consumer awareness campaigns and FLO affiliation. Minimum price of USD $2.50* per kg plus a $0.20¢ per kg social premium. An extra USD$0.40¢ premium if the coffee is also certified organic. *Fair Trade Minimum for washed Arabica. Prices vary by coffee type.

Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

Currently, no fees charged to buyers of Rainforest Alliance TM Certified coffee. Many buyers support the participating farms (see above).

Importers pay $100 per yr. to participate/use BF logo/term. Roasters pay USD$0.50¢ per kg on coffee roasted and sold as “Bird Friendly®”. (This royalty fee under reevaluation as of 2008/2009.)

USD$0.024 per kg to “first buyer”, passed on through supply chain to final buyer

Yearly membership fees for all actors along the chain according to size and position in chain: roaster’s fees are the highest.

The Rainforest TM Alliance Certified program does not set prices, but honors the farmers’ right to manage their own business affairs and gives them the tools required to succeed in the global marketplace. Farmers earn more through gains in efficiency,

USD $0.10-0.20¢ per kg

2008: USD$0.14¢ per kg average for Arabica: $56 per metric ton for Robusta, based on quality and market drivers

No; individual negotiation possible between 4C members

52



Organic


Rainforest Alliance


Utz Certified

4C Common Code

improved quality and controlling farm costs.

Pounds Certified 81 million pounds of organic coffee were in 2007/2008 imported into the United States and Canada in 2007

Countries of Consumption

US, Canada, EU, Russia, Japan

450 million pounds

Over 94 million pounds 9 million pounds certified in 2005 and worldwide over 197 million lbs. certified by 2007.

700 million pounds certified worldwide. 170 million purchased as Utz Certified

4.57 million bags verified in coffee year 2007/2008 (548 million pounds)

US, Canada, EU, Japan, Australia, New Zealand

From Singapore to Switzerland, Rainforest TM Alliance Certified coffee is consumed in 44 countries on 6 different continents.

US, UK, NL, Norway, Sweden, Belgium, Spain, France, Japan

Countries of operation of 4C Industry members

US, Canada, Japan, The Netherlands

53


Certification / Verification Countries of Origin Represented

Organic


More than 40 nations Bolivia, Brazil, supplying the global Cameroon, Colombia, market – more than Congo, Costa Rica, any other certification. Dominican Republic, East Timor, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Honduras, Indonesia, Kenya, Laos, Mexico, Nicaragua, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Rwanda, Tanzania, Thailand, Uganda. Venezuela

Rainforest Alliance Rainforest Alliance TM Certified coffee is produced in 17 countries throughout the tropics: Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Honduras, Indonesia, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Tanzania, Vietnam, Uganda, and India.

Smithsonian Bird Friendly® Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela

Utz Certified

Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia, Bolivia, Birundi, Brazil, Peru, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, India, Indonesia, Vietnam

4C Common Code Brazil, Cameroon, Colombia, Cote d’Ivoire, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malawi, Mexico, Nicaragua, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Tanzania, Thailand, Uganda, Vietnam, Zambia

54


Annex 2: List of substance prohibited on certified farms (SAN/ Rainforest Alliance, as of November 2011)

Active Ingredient 1. 1,2-dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide) 2. 1,2-dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride) 3. 2,3,4,5-bis(2-butylene) tetrahydro-2-furaldehyde [repellent-11] 4. 2,4,5-T (2,4,5trichlorophenoxyacetic acid) and its salts and esters (dioxin contamination) 5. 2,4,5-TCP (potassium 2,4,5trichlorophenate) 6. acephate

EPA

European Union

POP

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

16. bromoxynil

X

17. butylate

X

18. cadmium and its compounds

X

Prohibited since November 2005

X


X

Prohibited since November 2005 3-year phase-out (limit June 30, 2012)

X

X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 4-year phase-out (limit June 30, 2012)

X


X X (granul ar only)

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since July 2011 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 3-year phase-out (limit June 30, 2012)

X

X

19. cadusafos (ebufos)


X

14. beta HCH (betahexachlorocyclohexane) 15. binapacryl

21. carbaryl

X

X

10. alpha HCH (alphahexachlorocyclohexane) 11. amitraz4

20. captafol

SAN Regulatory Status


8. aldicarb

12. arsenic compounds (EPA: arsenic trioxide; calcium, copper, lead and sodium arsenate; sodium arsenite) 13. atrazine

PAN Dirty Dozen

X

7. alachlor

9. aldrin

PIC

X X

4-year phase-out (limit June 30, 2012)

55


22. carbofuran

X

23. carbon tetrachloride

X

24. carbosulfan

X

X

25. chloranil

X

26. chlordane

X

X

X

27. chlordecone (kepone)

X

X

X

28. chlordimeform

X

X

29. chlorfenapyr X

31. chloromethoxypropylmercuricacetate (CPMA) 32. chlozolinate

X

36. DDT 37. dicofol containing less than 78% p,p’-Dicofol or >1 g/kg of DDT and DDT related compounds 38. dieldrin

42. di (phenylmercury) dodecenylsuccinate (PMDS) 43. DNOC (dinitro-ortho-cresol) and its salts (ammonium, potassium, sodium) 44. Dustable powder formulations containing a combination of: benomyl ≥ 7%, carbofuran ≥ 10%, thiram ≥ 5% (PIC: 15%) 45. endosulfan 46. endrin

X

X

X

X

X

X


X


X X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since July 2011 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

X X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

X

39. dimethenamid 40. dinoseb, its acetate and dinoseb salts 41. dinoterb

X

X

30. chlorobenzilate

33. cyhalothrine (but not lambda isomers of cyhalothrin) 34. daminozide (alar) (only prohibited for food crops) 35. DBCP

X

Prohibited since July 2011 for formulations other than granular ones - already Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since July 2011 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

X

X

X


X

4-year phase-out (limit June 30, 2012) Prohibited since November 2005

X

X

X

X

X

X

X


X

X

56


47. EPN

X

48. ethylene oxide (oxirane)

X

49. ethyl hexyleneglycol

X

X

50. fenthion

X

51. fentin acetate

X

52. fentin hydroxide

X

53. fenvalerate

X

54. ferbam

X

55. fluoroacetamide

X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

X

X

X

X

X

X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

56. HCH mixed isomers (containing less than 99.0% of the gamma isomer) 57. heptachlor

X

X

X

X

X

58. hexachlorobenzene (HCB)

X

X

X

X

X

59. leptophos

X

60. lindane (gamma-HCH)

X

X

X

61. maleic hydrazide and its salts, other than choline, potassium and sodium salts; choline, potassium and sodium salts; maleic hydrazide containing more than 1 mg/kg of free hydrazine expressed on the basis of the acid equivalent 62. Mercury and its compounds (including mercuric oxide, mercurous chloride (calomel), phenylmercury acetate (PMA), phenylmercuric oleate (PMO) other inorganic mercury compounds: alkyl mercury, alkoxyalkyl and aryl mercury compounds)

63. methamidophos

64. methyl parathion (parathion methyl) 65. mevinphos 66. mirex

X


X

X

X

X

X

600 g/l (SL) formulatio n and higher

600 g/l (SL) formulati on and higher

X

X

X

X

X X

X


X

X


X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

57


67. monocrotophos

X

X

68. monolinuron

X

69. monuron

X

70. nitrofen

X

71. nonylphenol ethoxylates 72. OMPA (octamethylpyrophosphoramide)

X

X X

X

73. oxydemeton-methyl

X

74. paraquat 75. parathion

X X

X

76. pentachlorobenzene 77. pentachlorophenol (PCP) and its salts and esters 78. permethrin

X

X

X ≥ 1000 g/l (SL) formulatio n

X

87. silvex

X

88. simazine

X X

90. technazene

X X X

93. thiodicarb

triazophos

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005

X X

95.


X

86. safrole

toxaphene (camphechlor)


X

85. quintozene

X X

X

X X

Prohibited since July 2011 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 3-year phase-out (limit June 30, 2012) Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since July 2011

X

X

94.

X

≥ 1000 g/l (SL) formulatio n

83. pyrazophos

91. terpene polychlorinates (strobane) 92. thallium sulphate

X

X

X

89. TDE

X

X

81. polychlorinated biphenyls PCB (except mono-and dichlorinated) 82. propham

84. pyriminil (vacor)

X X

79. phosalone

80. phosphamidon

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since July 2011 Prohibited since November 2005

X

X

X

Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since July 2011 Prohibited since November 2005 Prohibited since July 2011

58


96. trichlorfon 97. triorganostannic compounds (tributyltin compounds) 98. vinyl chloride 99.

zineb

X

X

Prohibited since July 2011

X


X X


59


About the contributor Dr. Tadesse Woldemariam Gole is an Ethiopian national, and has studied forestry in Ethiopia (Haramaya) and Sweden (SLU), and Ecology and Natural Resources Management in Germany (University of Bonn). He has over 20 years work experience as a researcher, researcher manager, educator and practitioner in the areas of forestry, coffee, forest biodiversity conservation, climate change, analysis of ecosystem services, habitat restoration and protected areas planning and management, and natural resources management. He is founder and Director of Environment and Coffee Forest Forum (ECFF), an Ethiopian NGO established in 2005. As Director of ECFF, he led several research and development projects over the last 10 years. His notable contribution includes leading the nomination and establishment of the Yayu Coffee Forest Biosphere Reserve and other UNESCO biosphere reserves in Ethiopia. ECFF integrates research, education and implementation of science & practiced tested development interventions, especially in coffee forest areas in Ethiopia.

60


61

Environment and Coffee Forest Forum

Recommend Documents